Colorectal Cancers

Preface

Medical Biotechnology - Approaches to become an Entrepreneur in Medical Biotechnology

Medical biotechnology is one of its branches which involves the application of medicine and biotechnology resources. Entrepreneurship is said to be the development of a new business making profits where innovation and creditability are considered as the backbone for its expansion. In the field of medical biotechnology, the innovation of new medicines, methods for the identification and analysis of new diseases, discovery of new solutions for a complex problem by satisfying the specific needs, etc., are involved. In this chapter, various approaches and ideas for becoming an entrepreneur in the field of medical biotechnology are discussed briefly.

Subject Index

Seaweed as a Functional Food to Increase Digestive Tract Health

Seaweeds are known as a delicacy and are a well-known source of vital dietary components. Seaweeds make up some of the most important sources of novel medicinal substances for human use. Additionally, as food, they have been proven to possess diverse health benefits. The distinctive characteristics of the marine environment where seaweed grows are thought to be primarily responsible for most of its traits. Compared to terrestrial plants, marine seaweeds contain higher amounts of health-promoting molecules and materials. Clinical trials and mechanistic research on isolated and extracted compounds from seaweeds have shown potential benefits to gastrointestinal health. The present review emphasizes the major seaweed compounds having nutritive value with special reference to the potential to improve gastrointestinal disorders and gut health.

Potential Blue Bioresources to Develop Functional Foods

Functional foods are foods with therapeutic properties that enhance health along with nutritional properties. This review provides information about the potential of using marine ingredients to develop functional foods by elaborating on the nutritional and therapeutic effects of bioactive compounds found in marine bioresources. Microalgae, marine fungi, bacteria, marine invertebrates, vertebrates, and marine plants are marine resources, and some of the bioactive compounds obtained from marine resources are polysaccharides, fatty acids proteins, peptides, amino acids, many types of essential macro and trace elements, pigments, and phenolic compounds. Marine bioactive compounds have shown many therapeutic properties, including anticancer, antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-proliferative, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, and immune regulatory activities. These compounds can be used in the functional food industry in the form of nano or micro-particles, liposomes, gels, liquids, solids, pastes, and emulsions to overcome the challenges that could occur during product formulation and processing. Overall, this book chapter reveals the important facts about marine bioresources (except Seaweeds) and their functional potentials that the majority are unaware of. It also identifies that future research studies should be carried out.

Molecular Basis of Obesity

Based on the classification by the World Organization of Health (WHO), it considers that a BMI equal to or greater than 30 kg/m2 corresponds to obesity. Likewise, a BMI value equal to or greater than 25 kg/m2 increases the chances of developing diseases associated with obesity. It is estimated that heredity in the variation of the BMI is in the range of 0.4 to 0.7; that is, the probability of inheriting obesity is very low and is more associated with exogenous factors. Obesity comorbidities are a risk factor for developing insulin resistance (IR), DM2, CVD, stroke, osteoarthritis, endometrial, breast, and colon cancer, among other chronic noncommunicable conditions. In addition, obesity is also linked to various digestive diseases, including gastroesophageal reflux disease, esophagitis, colorectal polyps, and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. Obesity and overweight are associated with 44% of DM2 cases, 23% of ischemic heart disease cases, and 7 to 41% of cancer cases.

Common Surgical Procedures in Geriatric Patients

Demographic studies show that life expectancy for people in the USA has been trending upwards for the past several decades. As the population ages, the number of geriatric patients who will require surgery has also increased. Information from the National Hospital Discharge Survey reported that in 2006, 35.3% of all inpatient procedures and 32.2% of all outpatient procedures were in patients aged 65 and older. Common elective surgeries in elderly patients include cataract and lens procedures, spinal fusions and laminectomies, and total or partial hip and knee replacements. Common urgent surgeries in this population include thoracic and abdominal cancer resections, breast and prostate cancer resections, and cholecystectomies. Finally, common emergency surgeries in the elderly population include hip fracture repairs and other geriatric traumas.

Endophytes as an Alternative Source for Anticancer Agents

The world faces new challenges every decade in the form of calamities, pandemics, and deadly diseases. The increase in the population and limited resources has led the human race towards many ailments that are incurable, but the potency of the human brain and in collusion with natural resources can reveal the remedy to many diseases. Cancer is one of the major reasons for mortality at present, which is a global challenge. The search for new anticancer drugs is a necessity of the present day. Researchers are urged to explore alternative and new potent sources of anticancer drugs. Natural sources include plant products or some plant-derived bioactive compounds. Endophytes manifest as an acceptable source of bioactive compounds of medicinal value. Endophytes are microorganisms present asymptomatically inside the plant parts. These are known to produce several metabolites with antifungal, antiviral, antioxidant, and anticancerous activity. Some major metabolites include taxol, alkaloids, camptothecin, chromones, etc. These produced metabolites can also be manipulated for the production of novel chemotherapeutic agents. The incessant need for these anticancer drugs has escalated the search for novel natural compounds. The present chapter attempts to summarize different endophytic metabolites that serve as an alternative source for an ailment of the deadly cancer disease.

Artificial Intelligence Assisted Colonoscopy in Diagnosis of Colorectal Cancer

As medicine continuously evolves, recent advances such as Artificial Intelligence gain prominence for their potential role in enhancing routine clinical practice. One such application is its role in diagnostic colonoscopy to aid in the early detection of precancerous lesions and enable prompt management.

Subject Index

Therapeutic Scope and Application of Mushroom-Derived Pharmacoactives in Enhancing Health

In the present era, the notion that “prevention is better than cure” has gained impetus with increased incidences of infectious and degenerative lifestyle diseases. Recent years have seen many people choosing functional food such as probiotics, plant-based nutritional supplements, and their normal dietary needs. Studies have shown significant health benefits in using these nutraceuticals as they aid in the body's general well-being. Among food varieties, edible mushrooms have also become a functional dietary food. It has been used as a source of nutrition in many parts of the world. Oriental medicine has been using mushrooms as a component in various medicinal concoctions for several decades. Today, with the advent of scientific knowhow, around 2,000 edible mushrooms have been identified; among them, 700 possess bioactive compounds. Both In vitro and In vivo studies have shown immunomodulatory effects via the regulation of innate, complement-mediated, and adaptive immunity by enhancing the active mechanisms of immune systems such as the macrophages, IL, TNF-α, IFN-γ, NO, and the complement system. The possibility of modulating these immune system players by the bioactives may pave the way to side-effect-free anticancer and immunosuppressant drugs. Recent studies have also elucidated the neuroprotective effect induced by mushroom-derived compounds through ROS scavenging and antioxidant activity. This chapter highlights the recent findings and the importance of these mushroom-derived compounds and their anti-inflammatory, anticancerous antioxidant, and immunomodulatory roles.

Oxidative Stress and Protein Misfolding in Skin Aging

Aging is a visible indicator of malfunctioning or toxic proteins that sensitize other proteins to oxidative damage which is most prominently observed on the skin. Protein misfolding is caused by the protein following an incorrect folding pathway which may lead to spontaneous misfolding while oxidative stress refers to the disruption of the balance between antioxidant defenses and reactive oxygen species production. Oxidation may alter noncovalent interactions within proteins, peptide chain fragmentation, and protein cross-linking, which causes protein misfolding and further skin aging. A feedback loop is observed in all three processes. A proper understanding of these events is significant in the formulation of anti-aging preparations and further understanding of the mechanism of aging. In this Chapter, we will be discussing some natural antioxidants available to combat oxidative stress which facilitate healthy aging and normal functioning of the body. We will be elaborating on the body’s natural defense mechanism against these problems such as the role of Chaperones. We will be looking at the detailed mechanism of oxidative stress, protein misfolding, and their correlation with skin aging along with factors influencing it. The biomarkers for oxidative stress will be enlisted. A brief correlation between these processes in a test worm and how it correlates to humans and its importance will be explained in this chapter.

Sharing is Caring: Drug Repurposing among Leading Diseases

The process of drug development is time-consuming and resource-intensive, but drug repurposing offers an alternative by using already approved drugs to treat different diseases. Drug repurposing candidates can be identified through computational and experimental approaches, which are often combined. Traditionally, drug repurposing is considered when developing a custom drug is not feasible, but recent findings regarding the cross-talk between cellular mechanisms and pathways that are altered among disease states suggest that multipurpose drugs may be the key to simultaneously treating multiple diseases. This chapter reviews published reports on drug repurposing for five of the most threatening diseases to human health today: Alzheimer's disease, arthritis, diabetes mellitus, cancer, and COVID-19, highlighting promising candidates, challenges, and potential future directions for research.

Subject Index

Biomaterials and Mesenchymal Stem Cells

Mesenchymal stem/stromal cells are splendid cell sources for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine attributed to the unique hematopoietic-support and immunomodulatory properties as well as the multi-dimensional differentiation potential towards adipocytes, osteoblasts, and chondrocytes in vitro and in vivo. To date, MSCs have been identified from various approaches, such as perinatal tissues, and adult tissues, and even derived from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs). Longitudinal studies have indicated the ameliorative effect and therapeutic efficacy upon a variety of refractory and recurrent disorders such as acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF), acute myeloid leukemia (ACLF), premature ovarian failure (POF), and intractable wounds. To date, MSCs have been a to have various origins, including mesoderm, endoderm and ectoderm. In this chapter, we mainly focus on the concepts, and biological and therapeutic properties of MSCs, together with the standardizations for industrial transformation. Overall, the descriptions would help promote a better understanding of MSCs in disease pathogenesis and management and benefit the preclinical and clinical applications in the future.

References

Subject Index

Promising Pharmaceutical Compounds of Marine Shellfish: Their Chemistry and Therapeutic Applications

This chapter deals with the promising bioactive compounds of marine shellfish viz. crustaceans, molluscs, and echinoderms. Among the marine crustaceans, the extracts of shrimps and crabs containing astaxanthin showed major bioactivities. On the other hand, among molluscs, gastropods possessed the maximum number of secondary metabolites and associated bioactivities compared to the bivalves and cephalopods. Further, among echinoderms, the asteroids and holothurians showed maximum number of secondary metabolites compared to their counterparts viz. echinoids and crinoids.

Promising Pharmaceutical Compounds of Marine Bryozoans: Their Chemistry and Therapeutic Applications

This chapter deals with the pharmaceutically important marine bryozoans, their promising secondary metabolites, and bioactivities. All the bioactive compounds of this marine invertebrate group are dealt with as per their chemical classes.

Promising Pharmaceutical Compounds of Marine Cnidarians: Their Chemistry and Therapeutic Applications

This chapter deals with the promising secondary metabolites of the different constituents of marine cnidarians viz. hydrozoan medusae, scyphozoan medusae and soft corals and their bioactivities. Among the chemical classes of compounds, terpenoids ranked first and cytotoxicity of these compounds was the major activity.

Promising Pharmaceutical Compounds of Marine Plants: Their Chemistry and Therapeutic Applications

This chapter deals with the promising marine bioactive compounds of marine plants such as, seaweeds, seagrasses, mangroves, and halophytes; and their chemistry and therapeutic applications. Among the different constituents, the seaweeds in general and brown and red algae exhibited a variety of bioactivities followed by mangroves, seagrasses, and halophytes in that order.

In vitro Propagation Protocol of Tylophora indica (Burm.f.)Merrill

Tylophora indica (Burm.f.) Merrill is one of the most commonly used medicinal plants with bioactive alkaloid-rich secondary metabolites. This plant is used to treat asthma, dysentery, whooping cough, rheumatic pains, jaundice, and cancer. Rapid exploitation of this plant in natural habitats and poor regeneration methods, which are not in pace with those of destruction, make tissue culture methods a viable option to be used as a method of conservation. In the present chapter, tissue culture protocols have been reported till now as the best viable means in the rapid multiplication of T. indica. Sterilization protocols, callus induction and somatic embryogenesis methods, and direct and indirect organogenesis used by different researchers in mass propagation and acclimatization are given in detail. The present chapter gives an insight into the hormones needed and the response of the explants, which will be helpful for those who want to propagate this medicinal plant under in vitro conditions.

Overview and Applications of CRISPR/Cas9 Based Genome Editing in Industrial Microorganisms

CRISPR-Cas technology has reshaped the field of microbiology. It has improved the microbial strains for better industrial and therapeutic utilization. In this chapter, we have tried to provide an overview of this technology with special reference to its associated applications in the various fields of interest. We have discussed the origin, classification, and different genome editing methods of CRISPR-Cas to understand its historical significance and the basic mechanism of action. Further, different applications in the area of agriculture, food industry, biotherapeutics, biofuel, and other valuable product synthesis were also explained to highlight the advancement of this system in industrial microbes. We have also tried to review some of the limitations offered by CRISPR and insights into its future perspective.

Animal Models for Cancer

Cancer is a complex multifactorial disease that affects many people worldwide. Animal models play an important role in deciphering cancer biology and developing new therapies. The animal models widely used in cancer research include tumor xenografts, genetically engineered mice, chemically induced models, and spontaneous tumor models. These models provide a controlled environment to study cancer progression, the interaction of cancer and the immune system, and the effectiveness of new therapies. Although animal models have several advantages, it is important to identify their limitations and use them in conjunction with other preclinical models, such as in-vitro cell culture and patient-derived xenografts, to ensure that results are transferable to humans. In this chapter, we discuss the importance of animal models in cancer research, the different types of animal models, and their advantages and disadvantages. We also provide some examples of animal models used in cancer research. Collectively, animal models have been invaluable in advancing our understanding of cancer and will continue to be important tools in the development of new therapies.

Nanoparticle Targeting Strategies In Cancer Therapy

This review outlines major cancer targeting strategies for nanoparticle systems. Targeted therapies have superiority over conventional chemotherapy or radiotherapy methods. Nanoparticles as drug nanocarriers enable drug delivery to the tumoral regions. For targeted drug delivery, nanoparticles are designed and tailored depending on the cancer and the purpose of the targeting mechanism. In this review, nanoparticle targeting for cancer therapy was summarized into three sections: passive, active, and physical targeting. Each issue was described and discussed with recent nanoparticular studies and their findings. In addition, a combination of targeting with diagnostics and theranostics was also presented.

Photodynamic Therapy and Applications in Cancer

The idea of using light as a therapeutic tool has been popular for thousands of years. Scientific discoveries in line with technological innovations have contributed to the advancement of photodynamic therapy as a therapeutic modality. Photodynamic therapy is based on the generation of highly reactive species that alter the molecular systematics of cells through interactions between light, photosensitizer, and molecular oxygen. It has a minimally invasive protocol that can be combined with other clinical methods or can be stand-alone. The development of photosensitizers with the integration of nanotechnological approaches has provided favorable results over the years in malignant and non-malignant diseases by facilitating target-site action, selectivity, and controllable drug release. This chapter presents a review of photodynamic therapy with its important aspects; history, mechanism of action, cellular effects, integration into nanoscale drug delivery systems, and combinational therapeutic approaches in cancer.

Subject Index

An Overview of Current and Future Applications of Robotics In Surgical Operations

Technology has changed almost all aspects of our life. Similarly, in the medical field, the new technology is Robotic surgery. Robotic surgery involves employing robots in the process of surgery. The employed robot, known generally as the surgical robot, is self-regulating, partially or entirely computer-controlled, and can be programmed as required for the surgery. As different surgical robots are employed for different types of surgery, robotic surgery improves patient care and ensures better treatment than regular surgery. The purpose of this article is to provide an outline of the main ideas of robotic applications used in surgery. This article aims to provide an overview of robotics's current and future applications in surgical operations and the advantages and disadvantages of surgical robots.

Subject Index

Phyto-nanoformulations for the Treatment of Clinical Diseases

Plant-derived drugs or formulations have always been explored because of

their lesser side effects and toxicities compared to synthetic drugs and they have been

widely used as traditional and complementary medicines for the management of many

diseases including cancer. The major challenges faced were the absorption of the plantderived

drugs, their stability, bioavailability, and transport to the intended sites inside

the body. Recent progress in nanotechnology has helped to minimize these limitations

and hence phyto-nanoformulations are slowly growing in preclinical trials as well as

clinical use. The use of various nanostructures such as nano-micelles, lipid

nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, polymer nanoparticles, and nanoliposomes and

various types of drug delivery vehicles such as polybutylcyanoacrylate, polylactic-c-

-glycolic acid, and lactoferrin has immensely helped in increasing the effectiveness of

phytochemical drugs by increasing their stability, better pharmacokinetics and reducing

the toxicity and side effects. Phyto-nanoformulations having natural product

components such as curcumin, piperine, quercetin, berberine, scutellarin, baicalin,

stevioside, silybin, gymnemic acid, naringenin, capsicum oleoresin, emodin, and

resveratrol have been shown to improve the condition of patients diagnosed with

diseases such as neurodegenerative disorders, diabetes, infections, and cancer. Phyto

nanoformulations can also be used to treat disorders of the brain where the blood-brain

barrier is impervious to the drugs. These phyto-nanoformulations have been shown to

target several molecular cell-signaling and metabolic pathways. This chapter covers the

compositions of phyto-nanoformulations and how they have been used to control

several diseases.

Probiotic Bacteria and Plants

Probiotics are microorganisms, when consumed, give health benefits due to
improvement in the activity of gut microflora. Various health claims are associated
with probiotics e.g. modulation of the immune system, mitigation of lactose
intolerance, protection from infections and maintenance of healthy gut microflora.
They have also been demonstrated to be helpful in treating a wide range of illnesses,
including cancer, inflammatory bowel syndrome, diarrhea brought on by antibiotics,
and infantile diarrhea. Streptococcus, Bacillus, Enterococcus, Escherichia coli,
Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus, and several strains of the fungus Saccharomyces are
significant probiotic bacterial genera. In fibrous parts of plants and probiotic bacteria,
the bacteriocins play a major synergistic antimicrobial role. Prebiotics are nondigestible
plant materials i.e., complex carbohydrates, fermented in the colon, thus
yield short chain fatty acids and energy, and enhance the growth of probiotics. Inulin
and fructans are important plant prebiotics. The indirect health benefits of prebiotics
are immunomodulatory characteristics, mineral absorption, cancer prevention, and
modulation of the metabolism of gut flora, and the prevention of constipation and
diarrhea. Many fruits, tuber crops, root crops as well as vegetables contain a huge
reservoir of prebiotic carbohydrates. The function of probiotic microbes in foods
includes modulation of the immune system, normalization of gastrointestinal activity,
and the inhibition of the growth of pathogenic microbes and harmful metabolites. The
function of prebiotic food material is to promote the growth of healthy bacteria in the
intestinal tract. This chapter highlights the potential need of probiotics and prebiotics in
our diet, and it also discusses their health benefits, mode of action, sources, food
applications, distinct types, and future perspectives.

Anticancer Activity of Medicinal Plants Extract and Molecular Docking Studies

Molecular docking involves the interaction of a molecule with another place, usually in the protein structure, and simulating the placement of the molecule in the protein structure with certain score algorithms, taking into account many quantities, such as the electro-negativity of atoms, their positions to each other, and the conformation of the molecule to be inserted into the protein structure. Finally, the activity of the molecule with the highest percentage by mass against various cancer proteins was investigated according to the GC-MS results made on some medicinal and aromatic plants in order to set an example of molecular docking calculations.

Cannabis in the Treatment of Various Cancers and its Current Global Scenario

Cannabis has been used as a drug for centuries, possibly much longer before it was recognised as an illegal substance. The prime psychoactive property is marked on the 9-THC compound. The cannabinoids replicate the action of endocannabinoids by stimulating receptors in the central nervous system and lymphatic system via diligent CB1 and CB2, respectively. Cannabinoids, on the other hand, are well known for their dependency, which is less severe than that of other drugs that can be abused. Cannabis' anti-tumor and anti-cancer potential was only discovered at the turn of the twentieth century. Cannabis consumption has been reported to benefit patients with cancer by suppressing nausea, curbing vomiting, elevating appetite, alleviating pain, and pacifying anxiety. Studies envisage that the up-regulation of CB receptors and their associated endogenous ligands correlates with the suppression of tumours. Patients have found cannabis to be effective in reducing side effects and relieving pain when used in conjunction with chemotherapy. Though cannabis prescription is restricted under federal laws in many countries, its lucrative efficacy profile has pushed regulators to reconsider its use in medical causes such as cancer. This chapter is an attempt to emphasise the biological role of cannabis in cancer pathophysiology

Application of d- and f- Block Elements and Their Compounds in Medicine

Carcinogenicity of Hexavalent Chromium and Its Effects

Hexavalent chromium has been a potential threat to human beings due to its toxicity and carcinogenesis. The pathway of entry of hexavalent chromium in an aqueous medium is both anthropogenic and natural through ores of chromium. Prolonged exposure to hexavalent chromium may cause DNA mismatch and gene mutation, resulting in cancer. Cr(VI)- induced malignant cell and its study has become very important towards the possible mechanism of Cr(VI) binding. When a cell of the human lungs adsorbs hexavalent chromium due to prolonged ingestion of Cr(VI) contaminated water or inhalation, oxidative DNA damage is caused in the specific gene. This causes mutations in adenine and guanine bases of DNA in cases of lung cancer.

Drugs and Phytochemicals Targeting Cancer

Cancer which is basically uncontrolled cell division and, thereby, the formation of tumors, has been a prominent cause of death across the world. More than 10 million people have lost their lives due to different types of cancer such as breast, lung, prostate, gastrointestinal, etc. Several pathways, including metabolic, signalling, etc., get altered to support uncontrolled cell division and their growth in case of cancer. Despite an increasing understanding of this disease over the period of time, still, specific causes could not be held responsible for the occurrence. Therefore, various different strategies mainly focused on preventing and killing cancerous cells have been explored. This chapter will primarily focus on the different drugs, including different types of chemotherapeutic agents such as DNA-alkylating agents like nitrogen mustard, cyclophosphamide, drug-peptide, drug-steroid conjugates, antimetabolites, antibiotics, etc. In addition to that, phytochemicals, which have also been investigated for their anti-cancerous activities and are under clinical trial, have also been discussed.

Contemporary Trends in Drug Repurposing: Identifying New Targets for Existing Drugs

Drug repurposing or drug repositioning has emerged as an efficient, very popular and alternative technique in modern drug discovery to identify old drugs for new targets cost-effectively and dynamically. This concept gets a tremendous boost, especially in the century's most challenging healthcare concern of the Covid-19 pandemic across the globe. In this approach, scientists seek new indications and clinical use of the drugs at minimum risk, which have previously already been pharmacologically established and approved. The methods developed for drug repositioning include computational approaches and biological methodologies, and with the fast technological advancement, various new drug-target- diseases are discovered, and thereby immense information is now available in the different databases, such as DrugBank, OMIM, ChemBank, KEGG, Pubmed, Genecard, and many more. The information available on all the above public domain databases has been utilized successfully in many drug repositioning projects. The present chapter discusses the concept of drug repurposing and its impact on academia, industries and, of course, their social implications. Besides this, the chapter will also cover details on tools and techniques to identify drugs for repositioning and their application in identifying drugs for various diseases and disorders. The current work will also foresee the recent market analysis and updates on the cost of drug discovery and development by drug repurposing, its comparison with traditional drug discovery approaches, challenges involved with drug repurposing, and future perspectives.

Subject Index

Some Medicinal Chemistry Applications of the QSAR/QSPR Theory

The application of QSAR/QSPR techniques and computer-aided modelling are considered valuable tools to initiate the search for new drugs, and nowadays, these are being intensively used for this purpose. Trustworthy models can provide insight into the structural characteristics that may influence the drug inhibitory activity, drastically improving the success and the pace of the development of more effective drugs with weaker secondary effects. The present book chapter revises and comments on different recent QSAR/QSPR applications conducted in medicinal chemistry field in the last five years (2016-2020), developed on various interesting biological activities and physicochemical properties of drug compounds.

Recent Synthetic and Biological Advances in Anti-Cancer Ferrocene-Analogues and Hybrids

Cancer is among the most severe risks to the global human population. The enduring crisis of drug-resistant cancer and the limited selectivity of anticancer drugs are significant roadblocks to its control and eradication, requiring the identification of new anticancer entities. The stable aromatic nature, reversible redox properties, and low toxicity of ferrocene revolutionized medicinal organometallic chemistry, providing us with bioferrocene compounds with excellent antiproliferative potential, which has been the focus of persistent efforts in recent years. Substituting the aryl/heteroaryl core for ferrocene in an organic molecule alters its molecular characteristics, including solubility, hydro-/lipophilicity, as well as bioactivities. Ferrocifen (ferrocene analogues of hydroxytamoxifen) has shown antiproliferative potential in both hormone-dependent (MCF-7) and hormone-independent (MDA-MB-231) breast cancer cells. It is now in pre-clinical trials against malignancies. These entities operate through various targets, some of which have been revealed and activated in response to product concentrations. They also react to the cancer cells by diverse mechanisms that can work in concert or in isolation, depending on signaling pathways that promote senescence or death. The behavior of ferrocene-containing hybrids with a range of anticancer targets is explained in this chapter.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) Game Changer in Cancer Biology

Healthcare is one of many industries where the most modern technologies, such as artificial intelligence and machine learning, have shown a wide range of applications. Cancer, one of the most prevalent non-communicable diseases in modern times, accounts for a sizable portion of worldwide mortality. Investigations are continuously being conducted to find ways to reduce cancer mortality and morbidity. Artificial Intelligence (AI) is currently being used in cancer research, with promising results. Two main features play a vital role in improving cancer prognosis: early detection and proper diagnosis using imaging and molecular techniques. AI's use as a tool in these sectors has demonstrated its capacity to precisely detect and diagnose, which is one of AI's many applications in cancer research. The purpose of this chapter is to review the literature and find AI applications in a range of cancers that are commonly seen.

Subject Index

Nanotechnology-Based Inhalation Approach for Lung Cancer

Ever since the success of producing inhalable insulin, drug delivery via pulmonary administration has been an intriguing way to treat chronic disorders. Pulmonary delivery system for nanotechnology is a relatively recent approach, especially when related to lung cancer therapy. The therapeutic ratio is increased by inhalation delivery, which delivers a high dose of the drug directly to the lungs without damaging other body organs. Despite extensive studies into targeted delivery and specific molecular inhibitors (gene delivery), cytotoxic drug delivery via inhalation is still considered a critical component of lung cancer treatment. Nanotechnology-based inhalation chemotherapy has been proven to be practical and more successful than conventional chemotherapy, with fewer adverse effects. Many nanocarriers have recently been studied for inhalation treatments of lung cancer, including liposomes, polymeric micelles, polymeric NPs, solid lipid NPs, and inorganic NPs. The potential for NPs-based local lung cancer targeting via inhalation, as well as the challenges that come with it, are explored here.

Ligands for Tumor Targeting

Cancer is the world's second leading cause of death, and new cancer cases are expected to increase dramatically in the next decades. Many biotechnologists and medical researchers are actively involved in finding issues related to cancer detection and treatment efficacy. Given the difficulties of traditional chemotherapy, the targeted drug delivery system (DDS) of chemotherapeutics for cancer therapy through nanoparticles (NPs) carriers is a growing field of research. Researchers have concentrated on surface modification of NPs or nanocarriers using biological ligands in addition to optimizing their physicochemical characteristics. Several in-vivo investigations have shown that virus-sized stealth NPs may circulate in the blood for a longer period and preferentially concentrate at tumor sites due to the increased permeability and retention (EPR) effect, also known as the passive targeting strategy. Surface modification of stealth NPs with specific biological ligands may result in enhanced retention and accumulation of NPs in tumor sites, referred to as an “active targeting strategy”. This chapter outlined some key points regarding each strategy's impact and how combining some or all of them has proven beneficial in tumor targeting. After a brief introduction to existing cancer treatments and their drawbacks, we discussed the biological obstacles that NPs must overcome, followed by several forms of DDS to increase drug accumulation in the tumor site. Then, using active targeting strategies, we also describe various receptors present on cancer cells that enhance cellular drug targeting. A substantial quantity of information has been summarized in tables on different polymeric NPs conjugated with selective targeting ligands such as proteins, polysaccharides, peptides, and aptamers to small molecules. With the potential of maximizing therapeutic efficacy and reducing side effects, ligandmediated-DDS has emerged as an essential platform for safe and effective tumor treatment.

Nanomedicine-based use of SiRNA in Cancer

People have been suffering from cancer and associated problems for many years. A great amount of improvement has occurred in the field of medical science, and it certainly has benefitted humankind to help live a happy and prosperous life. Despite all these things, cancer treatment remains a provocative question as every year cases are increasing; on the contrary, there are a lot of difficulties associated with cancer treatment. To cope with these unique and mischievous problems, nanotechnology is considered a boon. Various nanoparticle facilitates the required characteristics to deliver a specific active therapeutic agent against the cancer cells. They can be targeted and even modified to fulfill specific pharmacokinetic parameters vital for in vivo delivery of drugs along with Nano-systems. This chapter here focuses on various types of nanoparticles and nanoparticle-mediated drug delivery of certain therapeutic agents.

Stem Cell Models: Novel Experimental Approach for Testable Alternatives against Therapy-resistant Breast and Colon Cancer

Breast and colon cancer represent the leading causes of mortality in developed countries. The treatment options for these organ site cancers differ depending on the status of hormone/growth factor receptors in molecular subtypes that exhibit altered expression of oncogenes/tumor suppressor genes and growth factormediated molecular pathways. Conventional cytotoxic chemo-endocrine therapy traditionally includes the use of anthracyclin, taxol, cisplatin, anti-estrogens, antifolates and DNA anti-metabolites. Additionally, the use of molecular pathway-specific small molecule inhibitors represents evidence-based targeted therapy. Long-term conventional or targeted therapy using pharmacological agents is frequently associated with systemic toxicity, acquired tumor resistance and the emergence of drug-resistant cancer stem cells. These limitations are associated with the progression of the therapyresistant disease.

Natural products such as dietary phytochemicals, their respective bioactive agents, botanicals, nutraceuticals and nutritional herbs are widely used in complementary and alternative medicine in women for estrogen-related issues, osteoporosis and breast diseases. Unlike conventional or targeted chemo-endocrine therapeutics, natural products, mainly due to their low systemic toxicity, may not lead to acquired tumor resistance and therefore, represent testable alternatives against therapy-resistant cancer.

These aspects emphasize a need to develop reliable experimental approaches, and specific and sensitive biomarkers that facilitate the identification of effective testable alternatives against therapy-resistant cancer.

Models for drug-resistant stem cells have been developed and characterized from the parental breast and colon carcinoma-derived cell lines, as well as from the cell lines derived from genetically predisposed colon cancer models. These stem cell models are characterized by the quantifiable expression status of select stem cell-specific cellular and molecular markers.

Mechanistically distinct natural products have documented growth-inhibitory effects on parental cell lines. Some of these agents also exhibit stem cell targeted growth inhibitory efficacy.

Recognizing clinical evidence for the role of estrogens in breast and colon cancer, future investigations include the development of tumor organoid models of therapyresistant breast and colon cancer from female patient-derived xenografts. These investigations support a scientifically robust rationale to provide clinical translatability for patient-derived preclinical data.

This chapter summarizes the evidence relevant to experimental models systems, natural products and efficacy of lead compounds as stem cell-targeted testable alternatives against breast and colon cancer. Collectively, discussed evidence and its clinical relevance support the hypothesis that natural products may benefit patients that are diagnosed for therapy resistant cancers.

Animal Models used in Cancer Research: Role of Transgenic Animals

In spite of the existence of many chronic diseases, cancer is still one of the major distresses for public health and is also the second largest major concern of death. The data collected from the last 50 years of research showed that very few cancers are curable, and the fear factor related to this disease is still unaltered. Victorious bench-tobedside transformation of basic methodical findings about cancer into therapeutic involvements for patients relies on the appropriate selection of animal experimental models. Animal models play an important role in studying the genetics and biology of human cancers as well as the preclinical examination of various cancer therapeutics and cancer prevention. In this chapter, we will review the imperative animal models such as spontaneous tumour models, chemically induced tumour models, radiationinduced tumour models, etc., along with other animal models, such as porcine, canines, etc., used for immuno-oncological research. In addition, the role of transgenic animals in cancer research will also be discussed.

Biomarkers for the Diagnosis and Surveillance of Cancer

Cancer remains one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Cancer management has been a daunting task for both health professionals and patients throughout the journey. Screening of cancer at the right time/stage remains the most critical part of the riddle. Certain molecules that characterize cancer, known as ‘biomarkers,’ come out to be the most useful in this journey. The National Institute of Health defines a biomarker as “a characteristic used to measure and evaluate objectively normal biological processes, pathogenic processes, or pharmacological responses to a therapeutic intervention”. These have proven to be often easily available agents employing minimally invasive methods. Biomarkers have played crucial roles in screening, asymptomatic and early-stage detection, monitoring of the treatment therapy and eventual follow-up to check upon a probable re-lapse or metastasis. A cancer biomarker can be any of the biomolecules such as protein, DNA, RNA, proteoglycans, immunological compounds, salivary biomarkers and endogenous peptides. With the refinement in high-throughput techniques, the list of the types of biomolecules and the number of potential biomarkers is only increasing, with volatile organic compounds from the breath (breath biopsy) adding to the list. In this chapter, we shall put effort into reviewing this otherwise very vast topic. The chapter will outline various types of biomarkers, the journey so far with clinically approved cancer biomarkers, the challenges being faced, and conclude with future perspectives.

Biomarkers as Tools for the Early Detection of Cancer

Every year, millions of people around the world lose their lives to different types of cancer, mostly in developing countries. The foremost challenge for the human race in to fight against cancer is its early detection, followed by the appropriate treatment. Currently, one of the most promising and dynamic strategies for early cancer diagnostics as well as for therapeutics, is the use of cancer biomarkers. Generally, biomarkers represent changes in the constituents or composition of cells, tissues, or body fluids, offering a means for comparable classification of diseases as well as the risk factor involved, and thereby providing information about the underlying pathogenesis of the disease. Similarly, a cancer biomarker (CB) is defined as a ‘molecular signature’ that can potentially provide valid information regarding staging as well as the mechanisms underlying the origin of cancer. Cancer biomarkers (CB) are biomolecules synthesized either by the cancer cells or by other cells of the body in response to cancer. Every cell type has its distinctive molecular signature and recognizable features, such as levels or activities of the myriad of genes, proteins, or other molecular characteristics; therefore, cancer biomarkers can facilitate the molecular definition of cancer. Endoscopy, X-rays, magnetic resonance imaging, computed tomography, invasive tissue biopsies, etc., are the traditional cancer diagnostic methods. However, the use of biomarkers as cancer screening tools have several advantages over these traditional approaches. The emergence of “omics” technologies, like metabolomics, genomics, epigenomics, proteomics, etc., has led to an increase in the number of potentially investigated biomarkers, such as DNA, RNA, miRNA, or other protein biomolecules. In this chapter, we have summarized the importance of biomarkers as powerful and dynamic tools for the early diagnosis of various types of cancers, the phases in the biomarker discovery, the criteria for the selection of biomarkers, the advantages of their preference over traditional methods, various categories of cancer biomarkers, examples of cancer biomarkers currently in use and the future prospectives.

Potential of Biomaterials Derived from Marine Algae as Anticancer Agent

Cancer is one of the most serious and common human diseases, causing millions of deaths per year worldwide. Currently, the discovery of noble therapeutic agents with a natural origin for cancer treatment is a major challenge. In this context, marine algae with wide species and phytochemical diversity will offer great scope for the discovery of new drugs. Algae with marine origin, including microalgae and macroalgae (seaweeds), constitute more than 90% of oceanic biomass. Marine algae are rich sources of pigments, lipids, carotenoids, omega-3 fatty acids, polysaccharides, vitamins and other fine chemicals. The biomaterials obtained from marine algae are important ingredients in many products, including cosmetics and drugs for treating cancer and other diseases. The in vitro and in vivo evaluations of biomolecules derived from marine algae have shown a vast range of pharmacological properties such as antioxidant, immunostimulatory and antitumor activities to control cancer. In spite of the rich source of various bioactive molecules, the marine algal flora largely remains unexplored for the discovery of active molecules against cancer to date. Hence, this review consolidates the available information on marine algae-derived anticancer molecules to provide baseline information for promoting anticancer research based on biomaterials derived from marine algae.

Molecular Mechanisms of Flavonoids Mediated Therapy and Chemoprevention of Cancer

Flavonoids derived from daily dietary source and plant products play a crucial role in the prevention and treatment of various degenerative diseases and cancer. Flavonoids are further subdivided into subclasses such as flavones, flavan-3- ols, flavonols, flavanones, isoflavones and anthocyanidins. There has been a resurgence in the research on flavonoids due to enhancement in the evidence that proves the health benefits of flavonoids. Several preclinical and epidemiological studies revealed that dietary intake of flavonoids may be found helpful in the reduction of risk of tumors like colon, breast, lung, pancreas and prostate. It also acts on the reactive oxygen species, and cellular signal transduction pathways associated with cellular proliferation, angiogenesis and apoptosis. Flavonoids are non-toxic in nature, so intensively studied the broad, vast aspect of their efficacy in biological activities that in turn promotes health benefits and also added to its availability in abundance in our daily diets, for instance, fruits, green leaves, tea, red wine and vegetables. Overall, the exciting data obtained so far elicit that dietary flavonoids have been considered a beneficial cancer preventive approach. This chapter unravels the molecular mechanisms involved in potential cancer preventive efficacy accomplished by the novel biological approach of flavonoids.

Antioxidants and Oxidative Stress as Foe and Friends in Prevention of Cancer

Cancer has become a major public health problem and is one of the leading causes of death among humans worldwide. It is characterized by the abnormal proliferation of cells due to failed normal regulatory mechanisms. Oxidative stress plays a crucial role in the pathology of many cancers and is characterized by an imbalance between the production and removal of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Under normal physiological conditions, the intracellular levels of ROS are steadily maintained to prevent cell damage, and detoxification of ROS is facilitated by various non-enzymatic and enzymatic antioxidants. These antioxidants have a widespread application in the prevention of cancer, as many endogenous and exogenous antioxidants can prevent and repair damage caused by disrupted redox status of cells during carcinogenesis. Our body can produce some of the antioxidants, but to obtain the rest of the antioxidants, it relies on external sources, primarily the diet of an individual. Also, there are certain health issues reported with the long-term usage of synthetic antioxidants. Therefore, nowadays, many nutritionists and dieticians suggest consuming food and natural products that are either rich sources of antioxidants or are supplemented with various nature-based antioxidants. This chapter seeks to explain the role of ROS in oncogenesis, understand the dynamics between oxidative damage and the antioxidants, types of antioxidants, natural sources of antioxidants, mode of action of antioxidants and the role of antioxidants in cancer prevention and treatment along with their disputable effects in cancer therapy.

Complementary and Alternative Strategies for Cancer Prevention and Therapy

Alternative and complementary therapies have been widely used for the treatment of cancer throughout the world. The term ‘Complementary and Alternative’ (CAM) was used by the American Cancer Society and the Union International Centre le Cancer (UICC). Complementary and alternative medicines mean anything which is not conventional; the reasons to adopt these therapies are that it makes use of the procedures used in adjunct to mainstream therapy in order to improve the quality of life. Several evidences were put on trial that support the value of hypnosis for cancer pain and nausea, mind-body therapies, relaxation therapy, massage for anxiety, acupuncture, homeopathy, Ayurveda, chiropractic medicine and osteopathy. The use of unconventional agents, pharmacological and biological agents, diet and nutrition and herbal therapies are amongst some of the most recent advances in alternative cancer therapies. This article reviews the various popular cancer therapies commonly practiced in India and abroad and reveals the scenario of various complementary and alternative cancer therapies.

Mechanistic Insight into the Chemotherapeutic Potential of Dietary Phytochemicals

Globally, cancer is the main cause of mortality and morbidity. Unfortunately, existing medical procedures are not adequate due to a lack of appropriate therapy, adverse health effects, chemoresistance and disease recurrence. In recent years, epidemiological findings have illustrated the connection between the consumption of several phytochemical-enriched foods and nutrients, and the lower risk of different types of cancer. Natural compounds named ‘phytochemicals’, commonly found in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains, have shown convincing beneficial biological effects on human well-beings, including curing different types of cancers. Phytochemicals, which are non-nutritive chemicals present in plants, have come up as modulators of essential cellular signaling pathways exerting proven anti-cancer benefits. Dietary phytochemicals have received major interest in chemoprevention as they are thought to be safe for human use. Chemo-preventive agents restrain the growth of cancer either by impeding DNA damage, which contributes to malignancy or by preventing or restricting the division of premalignant cells through DNA damage. Phytochemicals may prevent carcinogenesis by contributing to cell cycle arrest, autophagy and apoptosis. The bioactive compounds have been reported to reverse adverse epigenetic control, including modifying DNA methylation and histone alteration, modulating the expression of miRNA, inhibiting phase I enzymes, and activation of phase II enzymes, scavenging DNA reactive agents, preventing the excessive proliferation of early, preneoplastic lesions, and suppress other properties of the cancer cells. These have all been a part of indirect yet successful and innovative approaches to cancer treatment utilizing phytochemicals.

Allium Species: A Remarkable Repertoire of Nutraceuticals with Anti-cancer Properties

Cancer - the name evokes fear and anxiety. Researchers are working tirelessly to bring hope to countless patients by developing prevention and treatment strategies. One approach is dietary modulation - which is documented to reduce the risk of cancer and increase the benefit of anti-cancer therapy. Allium species are a part of the daily diet in most parts of the world. Important members of this genus - chives, garlic, onions, and shallots add flavour and nutrition to food. These are prized for their organosulphur compounds and flavonoid content which are responsible for their diverse pharmacological activities. Traditional and scientific literature shows that dietary intake of Allium species prevents and aids the treatment of different cancers. In this review, based on an extensive search of available databases, the role of Allium species as nutraceuticals for cancer management was examined to ascertain the truth in the popular claims. Preclinical and clinical investigations show that consumption of the Allium members as a part of the diet and also the functional components (e.g., allicin, diallyl disulphide, diallyl trisulphide, ajoene, S-allyl cysteine, S-allyl mercaptocysteine, tuberoside M, onionin A, fisetin, quercetin, etc.) reduce risk of cancer and have significant antitumor activities. These act by varied mechanisms, including inhibition of gene expression, promotion of apoptosis of cancer cells, antiproliferative activity, and anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. It is emphasised that standardization of Allium products, their efficacy, dosage, safety profiles and interactions should be ascertained to corroborate their use. This article highlights the importance of Allium species for their prophylactic, therapeutic and immune-boosting ability in cancer management.

Unravelling the Role of Vegetables, Pulses and Spices as Therapeutic and Chemopreventive Agents

Worldwide, cancer has become the most life-threatening disease. The current remedial treatment of cancer includes chemotherapy, surgery, immunotherapy, stem cell transplant and hormone therapy. Plants produce secondary metabolites in abundance having medicinal properties used for treating various diseases, such as AIDS, diabetes, cancer, inflammation, fever, diarrhoea and bacterial and fungal infections. Naturally derived components are largely considered by scientists and researchers due to their low toxicity and lesser side effects. Functional foods are the food or food components that provide health benefits beyond basic nutrition. Functional foods simply provide nutrients that help to maintain health, thereby reducing the risk of disease. Various vegetables like Asparagus racemosus, Cocos nucifera, Brassica oleracea var. Botrytis, Zingiber officinale, Atrocarpus heterophyllus, etc., pulses, i.e., Cicer arietinum, Phaseolus vulgaris, Vigna radiate, Vigna mungo, etc., and Spices viz., Ferula asafoetida, Piper nigrum, Elettaria cardamomum, Coriandrum sativum, Nigella sativa and Curcuma longa, are explored for their potential role to fight many diseases and anticancer activity. This review aims to highlight the protective and synergistic role of functional foods in cancer prevention.

Classification Tool to Predict the Presence of Colon Cancer Using Histopathology Images

The proposed model compares the efficiency of CNN and ResNet50 in the field of digital pathology images. Deep learning methods are widely used in all fields of disease detection, diagnosis, segmentation, and classification. CNN is the widely used image classification algorithm. But it may show less accuracy in case of complex structures like pathology images. Residual Networks are a good choice for pathology image classification because the morphology of digital pathology images is very difficult to distinguish. Colon cancer is one of the common cancers, and it is one of the fatal diseases. If early-stage detection has been done using biopsy results, it will decrease the mortality rate. ResNet50 is selected among the variants as its computational complexity is moderate and provides high accuracy in classification as compared to others. The accuracy metric used here is the training and validation accuracy and loss. The training and validation accuracy of ResNet50 is 89.1% and 90.62%, respectively, whereas the training loss and validation loss are 26.7% and 24.33%, respectively. At the same time, for CNN, the accuracy is 84.82% and 78.12% and the loss is 36.51% and 47.33% .

Chromosome X

X Chromosome is the sex chromosome that is found in many organisms. Both males and females, including mammalians, have X Chromosomes. Females have XX sets of chromosomes, and males have XY sets of chromosomes. X Chromosome aids in identifying the sex of the organism. The Human X chromosome contains approximately 1500 genes. These genes may undergo some genetic alterations and eventually lead to complex diseases. Genetic mutations in some of the genes of the X chromosome are associated with cancer. Some specific mutations are observed in human cancer cells. This chapter specifically relayed on X chromosomal genes that are associated with different types of cancer and gave information on the location of the gene in the X chromosome. Moreover, the function of the specific gene and information regarding how many types of cancers were associated with a particular gene, has also been provided.

Chromosome 22

When the collection of human Chromosome 22 was first suggested in 1999, it became the most extended, non-stop stretch of DNA ever decoded and assembled. Chromosome 22 became the first of the 23 human chromosomes to decode due to its minimal length and affiliation with numerous diseases. Chromosome 22 involves several genes that contribute to cancer genetics in one way or the other. The contribution of chromosome 22 in abnormalities is evident through somatic translocations, germline and somatic, and in certain cases, overexpression of genes. One famous example is the Philadelphia translocation, particularly in chronic myeloid leukemia cells. Various gene contributions about types of cancer such as Acute Myeloid Leukemia, colorectal, lung, breast cancer and many more have been reported in studies related to chromosome 22. This chapter takes a run-through of important targeted studies of a gene that facilitates itself as a part of cancer genetics.

Chromosome 21

The significance of human chromosome 21 is that the trisomy of human chromosome 21 causes Down syndrome in children. There are about 235 protein-coding genes on chromosome 21. Mutations like translocation in human chromosome 21 cause different conditions such as partial monosomy 21, core binding factor acute myeloid leukemia, ring chromosome 21, and other types of cancers such as acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Mutation in the DSCAM gene causes mental retardation and facial deformities in down syndrome. The human chromosome 21 also comprises the APP gene, where the expression of the gene causes Alzheimer's disease. The genes that are involved in causing Down syndrome and Alzheimer's diseases are also involved in cancer. This chapter discusses 63 genes of human chromosome 21 that are involved in different types of cancer.

Chromosome 20

Over the years, many scientists and doctors have been treating the deadly disease of cancer but are not able to find a permanent treatment for this disease. Also, sometimes it becomes very difficult to understand the mechanisms and causes of cancer as it is a very complex disease that involves many biological processes. Due to the redundancy in our biological system, cancer progression becomes very easy, thus making it difficult to cure. To find the root cause of this disease, we should know what genetic alterations are undergoing, which is causing cancer to progress, and know who is participating in these alterations, like proteins, signaling pathways, or genes. Cancer is caused due to various reasons; it can be due to genetics but mostly due to carcinogens, causing mutations in the genes, thereby making them an oncogene. The Proto-oncogenes are those genes that usually assist the growth of tumor cells. The alteration, mutation, or increased copy number of a particular gene may turn into a proto-oncogene which could end up completely activated or turned on. Many Tumor-causing alterations or mutations related to oncogenes are usually acquired and not inherited. These tumor-causing mutations often actuate oncogenes via chromosomal rearrangement, or alterations in the chromosome, which sequestrates one gene after another, thereby permitting the first gene to prompt the alternative. Search which genes are involved in different cancer types would help scientists proceed with new methods for finding a cure for this disease. This article will depict which genes and their location on which chromosomes, specifically on chromosome 20, are related to different types of cancer.

Chromosome 19

Gene is considered discrete coding units that contain the information for individual proteins. These lot of genes were combined and named DNA which is tightly coiled many times over the histone protein to form Chromosomes. Humans have got 23pairs of chromosomes, including the sex chromosome. The current study is about the major genes and their functions that are present in chromosome 19. There are approximately 1500 genes present in this chromosome, and changes in chromosome 19 are identified in many cancers. Dislocation of the chromosome, a mutation in genes that are present in a chromosome (rearrangements, deletions, or duplications) of DNA in the chromosome, epigenetic modification, and lifestyle changes are some of the chromosomal abnormalities that are responsible for cancer-causing. These changes will trigger the growth of normal cells and induce cancer cell proliferation, migration, invasion, angiogenesis, and metastasis. The signaling pathways like PI3K/AKT, JAK/STAT, NF-κB, and TGF-β are responsible for the various cellular functions with the result of autocrine, juxtacrine, intracrine, paracrine, or endocrine. When the dysregulation of these signaling pathways leads to cancer progression and metastasis. Prostate cancer, breast cancer, gastric cancer, pancreatic cancer, colon cancer, gastric cancer, lung cancer, leukemia, and cervical cancer are the major cancers that are caused because of mutation that occurs in chromosome 19.

Chromosome 18

Cancer is an abnormal or unusual growth of cells in the body with invasive and migrating potential. It leads to loss of function, weakens the immune system, and is the second leading cause of death worldwide. This makes it important to eliminate the disease. Genetic predisposition imposes a high relative risk for several kinds of cancer. Inherited genetic mutations are responsible for causing 5 to 10 percent of all cancers. Scientists have investigated mutations in specific genes with more than 50 hereditary cancer syndromes. For this, chromosome 18 was explored for its genes associated with cancer and this study unveiled 30 genes involved in causing cancer. Of these, the genes DCC, EPB41L3, MBD1 PHLPP1, and RBBP8 were the potential tumor suppressors. This chromosome consists of the target genes of the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) signaling pathway. The SMAD family genes (SMAD4, SMAD7, and SMAD2) are encoded by this chromosome, of which SMAD4 acts as a tumor suppressor. SERPINB5 and TCF-4 were the potential oncogenes. The enzyme coded by TYMS was a potential therapeutic target for chemotherapy. Several fusion genes of this chromosome (SS18-SSX2B, SS18-SSX2, and SS18-SSX4) have been identified to cause cancer. Therefore, this chapter provides a summary of the genes in chromosome 18 that are involved in the initiation and proliferation of cancer and provides an insight into the potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets for clinical application to develop a cancer-free world.

Chromosome 17

Cancer is a disease in which the body's cells divide disorderly and are likely to spread to other organs. It has always been one of the world's top causes of death. A growing population, low mortality rate, and lifestyle changes lead to an increase in the number of cancer cases. It can be caused by genetic or environmental factors or a combination of both. The risk of cancer increases with age as the body loses its ability to eliminate the damaged cells. Cancer-causing genes can be inherited or acquired due to exposure to carcinogens. Cancers are inherited when a mutation occurs in the germ cells. The carcinogens can alter the DNA of a normal gene (a proto-oncogene) converting it into a cancerous oncogene. Genes that slow cell division, fix DNA errors, or undergo programmed cell death (apoptosis) are tumor suppressor genes. Tumor suppressor genes that don't function properly can cause cells to develop out of control, leading to cancer. Cancer expresses itself differently in each individual, making it challenging to identify and treat. Studying the types of genetic mutations, as well as the genes, proteins, and signaling pathways involved in cancer formation will help better understand the underlying cause of cancer. Identifying which genes are expressed in various cancer types will enable scientists to develop novel techniques for curing the disease. This chapter will explain how different cancer types are linked to specific genes and their locations on chromosome 17.

Chromosome 16

Cancer is a heterogeneous disorder with invasive and metastatic potential. It is a deadly disorder affecting 1 in 6 people worldwide. Hence, it is important to eliminate the disease. Genetic alterations remain an underlying cause of cancer, and several gene mutations were involved in causing different types of cancer. Recently, researchers have been investigating the role of genetic mutations in causing cancer. For this reason, the genes associated with chromosome 16 were investigated for their role in causing cancer. This study revealed 70 genes associated with cancer. Of which, the cadherin genes (CDH11, CDH13, and CDH1), AXIN-1, ANKRD11, BANP, CYLD, CBFA2T3, IR8, MVP, MT1F, NQO1 and PYCARD was the tumor suppressor, and the gene MSLN is the potential oncogene. CBFB and MYH11 are well-known fusion genes associated with this chromosome. Loss of heterogeneity was noted in the q arm of this chromosome. The chromosome translocations, t (16;16) (16) (p13q22), t (16;21) (21) (p11;q22), t (12;16) (q13; p13; p11), t(16;21) (p11;q22) and t(7;16) (q33; p11) led to the development of acute myeloid leukemia, leukemia, and sarcoma. Several other genes associated with chromosome 16 responsible for cancer initiation and proliferation are summarized in this chapter. A novel insight into the genetic biomarkers and therapeutic targets has been provided to develop potential therapeutic strategies against cancer.

Chromosome 15

The genomic alteration at chromosome 15 has been widely recognized as the utmost significant and prevalent alteration in several cancers, including non-small-cell lung cancer, breast cancer, ovarian cancer, prostate cancer, gastrointestinal cancer, acute lymphoblastic leukemia, colorectal carcinoma, hepatocellular carcinoma, myeloma, pituitary adenomas, etc. Emerging reports suggest that the abnormalities of prime genes in chromosome 15 have drastic effects on tumor development and progression, and can be candidate biomarkers of disease prognosis, disease progression, and response to treatment. The translocations involving chromosome 15 and other chromosomes have been found in tumors, including mucoepidermoid carcinomas, mixed-lineage leukemia, colorectal cancer, pancreatic cancer, sarcoma, lung adenocarcinoma, melanoma, brain cancer, cholangiocarcinoma, spitz tumor, congenital mesoblastic nephroma, papillary thyroid cancer, pontine glioma tumors, and acute promyelocytic leukemia. The tumor suppressor genes such as C15orf65, CSK, CRABP1, DAPK2, FES, GREM1, KNSTRN, NEDD4-1, NTRK3, PML, SPRED1, TPM1, and TCF12 under chromosome 15 play a crucial role by enhancing cellular growth, proliferation, migration, invasion, metastasis, cellular differentiation, and development in various cancer, including colorectal cancer, acute promyelocytic leukemia, myeloid leukemia, breast cancer, thyroid carcinoma, glioblastoma, intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma, chondrosarcoma, cartilaginous cancer, Squamous cell carcinoma, non- small-cell lung carcinomas, mucosal melanoma, and oral squamous cell carcinoma. Chapter 15 discusses the significance of each important gene under chromosome 15 in mediating oncogenesis. The elevated or attenuated expression levels of these cardinal genes can either act as an oncogene or a tumor suppressor. Thus, shedding light on these genes would be a game changer in the field of cancer genetics and theragnostic.

Chromosome 14

Cancer genetics has focused on several mutational events within a tumor cell for many years. Recently, the study on cancer genetics has been widened by concentrating on the importance of intercellular communication and epigenetic events causing tumor progression and development. The translocation of genetic material betwixt chromosome 14 and other chromosomes may engender the formation of various types of tumors. Recent studies emphasize that these chief translocations between two chromosomes may disrupt the genes crucial for controlling cell growth and cell division. The translocations involving chromosome-14 and other chromosomes have been found in tumors including acute myeloid Leukemia, acute lymphoblastic leukemia, acute bilineal leukemia, follicular lymphoma, small cell lung cancer, non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, Burkitt lymphoma and multiple myeloma. The tumor suppressor genes, such as ARID4A, ARID4B, BCL11B, BMP4, CCNB1IP1, CEBPE, DICER1, DLK1, ESR2, FOXN3, HIF1A, MAX, MEG3, NDRG2 and TTF-1/NKX2-1 under chromosome 14, play a hypercritical role by enhancing cellular differentiation, migration, proliferation, metastasis, invasion, cellular growth, and development in several tumors, including breast cancer, pancreatic tumor, osteosarcoma, lung cancer, endocrine tumor, T-ALL, cystic nephroma, Hodgkin lymphoma, pleuropulmonary blastomas, Sertoli Leydig ovarian tumors and rhabdomyosarcoma. Chapter 14 meticulously discusses the importance of each predominant gene under chromosome 14 in mediating tumorigenesis. In cancer genetics, these cardinal genes play a crucial role by acting as an oncogene or a tumor suppressor in several cancers. Thus, targeting these tumor-causing genes would provide a breakthrough in cancer biology and oncology when concerned with future perspectives.

Chromosome 13

Chromosome 13 represents around 4 percent of the total cellular DNA with 115 million base pairs. It is home to various tumor suppressors and oncogenes, such as ADP ribosylation factors like GTPase-11 (ARL11), Retinoblastoma-1 (RB1), Ras-related protein Rap-2a (RAP2A), etc. Most of the somatic mutations in this chromosome lead to cancer development. Further, deletion in this chromosome has been reported to support the cancer of leukemias, lymphomas, etc. In this chapter, we have tried to list cancer-causing genes and their possible oncogenesis in cancer development.

Chromenes as Anticancer Agents

Heterocyclic compounds hold an important place in the realm of medicinal chemistry due to their vast pharmacological and therapeutic significance. Worldwide, cancer is the leading cause of death, and developing an appropriate treatment for the management of cancer is a challenge. Efforts are being made continuously to search for a suitable medicinal agent to treat cancer. Chromene (benzopyran) is an important scaffold and is also considered a privileged pharmacophore. This scaffold also appears as an important structural component in various natural products. The various substituted and fused chromenes display propitious activity against various types of cancer. This chapter highlights the latest advancements from the year 2015 to date on chromene-based molecules that have anticancer activities. A subpart briefing natural chromenes containing anticancer potential is also incorporated.

Recent Trends of Chromene Syntheses

2H/4H-chromenes (2H/4H-Ch) structural scaffolds have been widely employed in the synthesis of many natural products and medicinal agents. 2H/4H-Ch have attracted considerable attention due to their various pharmacological activities, such as anticonvulsant, anticholinesterase, anticancer, anti-tuberculosis, antimicrobial, and inhibitory activity against monoamine oxidase (MAO), and anti-diabetic activities. In literature, the synthesis of 4H-chromenes was performed by one-pot Knoevenagel condensation of resorcinol, aryl aldehydes, and malononitrile in the presence of basic catalysts. Also, 2H-Ch analogs were performed by the Wittig-Horner-Emmons and Suzuki-Miyaura cross-coupling reactions. A description of recent advances in the syntheses of chromenes is presented in this chapter. The strategies for the synthesis of 2H/4H-Ch discussed in this chapter are organocatalysts, organometallic or metal catalysts, heterogeneous base catalysts, enzymatic catalysts, and green chemistry-based approaches.

Application of Dincharya, Rutucharya and Yoga for the Prevention and Management of Cancer

Cancer is a group of diseases having an uncontrolled unregulated division of abnormal cells that tend to spread to all other parts of the body. It is observed that about 80-90 percent of the causes of cancer include unhealthy diet, behavioral habits, and environmental factors that can be prevented. Cancer is not described in Ayurveda, but in Brihatatrayi, there is a description of Granthi and Arbuda, which can be correlated with cancer due to the similarity in nature and clinical course. In Ayurveda, there are three major causes of any ailment: Kala Parinam, Pragyaparadha, and AsatmendriyarthaSamyoga. All of this can be prevented by adopting a healthy lifestyle. Hence there is a need to focus on a healthy lifestyle to manage and prevent cancer. Concept of Primordial prevention: The holistic approaches of Swasthavritta like Healthy dietary and behavioral habits, Dincharya, Ritucharya, not restraining nonsuppressible urges and holding suppressible desires, Good conduct, Yoga, Pranayama, Meditation, and Shatkarma purifying procedures, all come under primordial prevention. This is the prevention of the risk factors by optimizing lifestyles associated with cancer by following the holistic principles of Ayurveda. Various research studies also proved that these principles of Ayurveda are helpful in the prevention and recovery of cancer patients. On the basis of the conclusion from the literature and available research on cancer, it can be said that adopting the holistic principles of Ayurveda is beneficial in preventing the risk of various types of cancers.

Overview of Cancer

The characteristics of cancer cells are continuous cell growth due to their non-responding nature to the signals of stopping the growth or apoptosis, the ability to spread in other parts of the body, and immortality of cells because of their capacity to restore their telomeres. The clinical features depend on the size and location of cancer and the presence or absence of metastasis. Local and systemic symptoms rely on the tumor mass and the body’s response to cancer, respectively. Cancer is classified according to the tissue involved, like Carcinomas, Sarcomas, Myeloma, Leukemia, Lymphoma, Germ cell tumor, and blastoma. The globally recognized standard to classify the extent of cancer spread is called T.N.M. Classification. It applies to many solid tumor cancers but is not relevant to leukemia and the central nervous systems tumor. The tumor can be diagnosed with tests like mammograms, Pap smears, Tumor markers, Bone scans, MRI, Tissue biopsies, and PET-CT scans. The treatment depends on the type and stage of cancer and the patient's overall health. Common treatment modalities are surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy. Other treatments are targeted/biological therapies, hematopoietic stem cell transplants, angiogenesis inhibitors, cryosurgery, and photodynamic therapy. Every treatment has its risks, benefits, and side effects.

Plant Cardenolides: Multifunctional Medicinal Agents

Cardenolides are a class of compounds steroidal in nature, belonging to the cardiac glycoside group of secondary metabolites. They consist of a sugar part and a non-sugar part consisting of a steroidal cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene ring with lactone substitution at the β-17 position. Cardenolides are found in angiosperm plant families like Plantiginaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Apocynaceae, Brassicaceae, Cruciferae, Liliaceae, Moraceae, Ranunculaceae, and Scrophulariaceae. These include some important glycosides, such as digitoxin, digoxin, Ouabain, Calotropin, etc. with profound pharmacological potential. Moreover, cardenolides have toxic effects for which these have been used in poison arrows and for self-harm purposes. Traditionally, these were used to treat congestive heart failure. However, recently they have emerged as promising agents to exhibit anticancer, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, and various other therapeutic roles. Cardenolides like Digoxin and Digitoxin have been used in the treatment of heart failure and atrial fibrillation. Toxicarioside A, and Calotropin have been reported to suppress tumor growth and are used as anticancer agents, Strophalloside and Oubain are reported to be involved in apoptosis. Oleandrin is an antiproliferative agent and can inhibit IL-8 which is responsible for cystic fibrosis.

An Overview of Natural Steroid Sources and their Therapeutic Profile

Natural steroids are organic compounds that play important physiological roles in various organisms. They are the key components of a cell, which act as important signalling molecules engaging in stress response, metabolic activities, reproduction, inflammation, and behavioural uniformities. Naturally, the human body embraces a cluster of steroids in the form of biological hormones, namely, sex hormones, adrenal cortical hormones and bile acids. Steroidal derivatives can imitate human hormones and exhibit their activities by boosting enzymes that the body lacks. Clinically, it is evident that the distribution of synthetic steroids is high in pharmaceutical use for hormonal anomalies, but they provide adverse side effects over long term usage. Steroids work as immunosuppressants to control many autoimmune disorders concerned with inflammation, but they also reduce the activity of the immune system, which is the body’s natural defence against infection and illness. Replacement of natural steroids sourced from herbal plants, marine invertebrates, bacteria, algae, and fungi has a medicinal value that aids in the treatment of various ailments. Apart from hormonal functions, bio-derived steroids also display a safe and copious pharmacological profile for anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-carcinogenic, anti-neoplastic, neuroprotective, and cardioprotective activities. This chapter discusses the prevalence of various naturally available steroids in different entities and their suitable applications in various fields.

Maternal Factors and the Placenta: A Programming Environment for Cardiovascular Disease

The risk of chronic diseases such as cardiovascular diseases (CVD) during postnatal life is not only determined by environmental factors in adulthood but also by intra-uterine and early life environment according to the Developmental Origins of Health and Disease (DOHaD) concept. Environmental insults including poor nutrition, oxygen availability, maternal stress, alcohol, smoking and drugs, can compromise the maternal uterine and lactational environment leading to short- and long-term adaptations in offspring physiology or programming. While short-term predictive adaptive responses may offer immediate survival value, they can lead to irreversible changes in embryonic/fetal tissues and organs mediated through changes in cellular signalling and metabolic pathways, as well as endocrine axes governing whole-body function. The capacity for developmental adaptation may also be determined by both genetic susceptibility and epigenetic mechanisms, as well as environmentally induced changes in maternal microbiome structure and composition. Basic mechanisms involved in the development of CVD have been described in previous chapters. Here we will focus on how mechanisms involved in developmental programming may contribute to CVD in adulthood.

Extraction and Application of Plant Exosomes

Plant extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membranous vesicles secreted by plant cells, with a lipid bilayer as the basic skeleton, which encapsulates various active substances such as proteins and nucleic acids. Plant exosomes are nanoscale vesicles secreted by plant cells, containing DNA, small RNA, sRNA, microRNA, miRNA and proteins, which mediate cell-to-cell communication. Plant exosomes play anti-inflammatory, antiviral, anti-fibrosis, anti-tumor and other roles through the substances contained in them, and participate in the defense response to pathogen invasion. Plant exosome nanoparticles are mostly edible and can be used as delivery vehicles for specific drugs without toxicity or side effects. In this chapter, the recent literature reports on plant exosomes are reviewed, and the sources and functions of plant exosomes are summarized and analyzed.

Biosynthesis of Nanomaterials via Plant Extracts

Nanoparticles (NPs) have become a hot research material in many fields, such as catalysis, sensing, clinical diagnosis, medical treatment, antimicrobial agents, and environmental remediation, due to their small size, high surface area, high reactivity, and unique optical, electrical, and thermodynamic properties. The type, morphology, size, and surface function modification of NPs determine their performance and application scope. The development of green, simple, and controllable NP synthesis methods is an important research direction at present. The biosynthesis of NPs is a kind of green synthesis method that uses organisms or biomolecules to reduce NP precursors. The reaction conditions are mild, the energy consumption is low, and there is no need for expensive equipment or harmful chemicals. It has been developed into an important branch of nanobiotic technology. This chapter summarizes the latest progress in the synthesis of NPs from different plant tissue extracts. It also summarizes the biosynthesis mechanism and application of NPs, analyzes the main problems faced by the biosynthesis method, and prospects its future research direction.

Chromosome 12

Chromosome 12 spans about 134 million DNA building blocks and represents approximately 4.5 percent of the total cellular DNA. Gene dysregulation from chromosome 12 has triggered a cell to transform into a cancerous cell. Different types of genes are present in chromosome 12 that cause colon cancer, ovarian cancer, prostate cancer, ampulla of Vater cancer (Vater cancer), etc. These genes play their role in the development and the progression of cancer into metastasis, Epithelial to mesenchymal transition, and overall cancer growth. In this chapter, we have enlisted the genes responsible for cancer and their short introduction.

Chromosome 11

Over the years, many scientists and doctors have been treating the deadly cancer disease but cannot find a permanent treatment for this disease. Also, sometimes it becomes tough to understand the mechanisms and causes of cancer as it is a very complex disease that involves many biological processes. Due to the redundancy in our biological system, cancer progression becomes very easy, thus making it difficult to cure. To find the root cause of this disease, we should know what genetic alterations are causing cancer progress and who is participating in these alterations, like proteins, signaling pathways, or genes. Cancer is caused due to various reasons; it can be due to genetics but primarily due to carcinogens, causing mutations in the genes, thereby making them an oncogene. The Proto-oncogenes are those genes that usually assist the growth of tumor cells. The alteration, mutation, or increased copy number of a particular gene may turn into a proto-oncogene, which could end up completely activated or turned on. Many Tumor-causing alterations or mutations related to oncogenes are usually acquired and not inherited. These tumor-causing mutations often actuate oncogenes via chromosomal rearrangement or changes in the chromosome, which sequestrates one gene after another, thereby permitting the first gene to prompt the alternative. Search which genes are involved in different cancer types would help scientists proceed with new methods for finding a cure for this disease. This article will depict which genes and their location on which chromosomes, specifically on chromosome 11, are related to different types of cancer.

Chromosome 10

Chromosome 10 contains various genes that are significantly involved in tumorigenesis. These genes described herein that play roles in cancer comprise receptor tyrosine kinases (FGFR2), proto-oncogenes (FRAT1, RET), tumor suppressor genes (PTEN, KLF6), and also genes involved in signal transduction (MAPK8), gene fusions (CCDC6, KIF5B, VTI1A), developmental processes (GATA3, NODAL), Epithelial- Mesenchymal transition (ZEB1, VIM) and epigenetic regulation (MLLT10). This chapter provides a compilation of many such genes from Chromosome 10 that are associated with cancer, with vivid delineations of the underlying molecular mechanisms of each gene in its contribution to cancer initiation, progression and metastasis. Genes that are insufficiently investigated but implicated in tumorigenesis have also been described in this chapter.

Chromosome 9

Chromosome 9 represents approximately 4.5 percent of the total DNA in cells, and it’s a submetacentric type of chromosome. Chromosomal abnormalities in chromosome 9 have been reported in different kinds of cancer, for example, deletion of the long-q arm, a fusion of ABL1 with BCR results in the ABL1-BCR fusion gene, etc. Bladder cancer, chronic myeloid leukemia, etc., are several cancer types resulting from genetic changes in the genes present in chromosome 9. Dysregulation of the tumor suppressor genes or activation of the oncogene from chromosome 9 has supported the normal cell’s transformation. Here, we have listed a few top genes reappearing themselves as causative agent for cancer development in cancer and types of cancer.

Chromosome 8

Chromosome 8 spans more than 146 million DNA base pairs, and represents between 4.5 and 5 percent of the total DNA in cells. Sixteen percent of these genes and their mutations have been identified to play a role in cancer development. Cancer is a genetic disease at the somatic cell level. Multiple gene mutations usually precede them throughout one’s life. Oncogenes such as Myc, Lyn, Atad2, etc., from chromosome 8 promoted cancer cell proliferation, invasion, and migration. The increased expression of these proteins can transform a normal cell into a cancer cell. Chromosome 8 also houses multiple tumor suppressor genes, such as Dlc1, E2f5, Gata4, Ido1, etc. These proteins, when expressed, reduce the chances of tumor initiation within cells. Thus, mutations leading to the reduced expression of these genes are associated with multiple cancers. Mutation of other functional genes like Ank1, Ctsb, Ext1, Il7, etc., has also been implicated in various cancers for their role in increasing the invasive nature of cancers by regulating angiogenesis and facilitating cancer metastasis. Cancers can also stem from the translocational mutations of genes in chromosome 8. This chapter explains essential cancer genes, genetic mutations, and gene variations that can cause an increased risk of cancer and its progression.

Chromosome 7

Chromosome 7 consists of 159 million base pairs, and around 950 genes, representing at least 5 percent of the entire DNA in a cell. Various genes that regulate cell division and cellular growth are present in Chromosome 7. Aberrations in these genes can therefore lead to tumorigenesis. Lymphomas and Leukemia have been frequently correlated with abnormalities on chromosome 7. Aberrations in chromosome 7, such as aneusomy in prostate cancer, gene amplifications in gastric cancer, and chromosomal gain in glioblastoma, are some of the starkly real ramifications of genetic abnormalities on chromosome 7. Numerous essential genes from Chromosome 7, including ABCB5, BRAF, CDK6, EGFR, ETV1, EZH2, IL6, and TWIST1, involved in cancer have been explained in this chapter.

Chromosome 6

Chromosome 6 is among the 23 pairs of chromosomes in humans and it spans about 170 million base pairs. Several cancer genes have been identified to have a role in cancer development. Cancer is also a genetic disease caused due to changes in the genes that control cell function, such as cell division and cell growth. Most of these cancer genes either act as tumor suppressors or possess an oncogenic potential. Oncogenes like ROS1, MYB, HMGA1, etc., induce tumorigenesis by playing a role in DNA repair, replication, transcriptional regulation, and mRNA splicing. When these genes are highly expressed, they result in the transformation of normal cells to malignant cells; on the other side, tumor suppressor genes like IGF2R, AIM1, IRF4, etc., reduce tumorigenicity and invasive potential. Thus, reduced expression of these genes due to loss of heterozygosity, deletion or any epigenetic modifications can induce tumor formation. Also, some genes can either suppress or induce tumor formation given the cellular location and condition, such as CCN2, TNF, etc. Along with these, different types of structural abnormalities can be observed on chromosome 6, such as chromosomal translocation, deletion, duplication, and inversion. These abnormalities on both p and q arms have been known to contribute to the growth and spread of cancer by impacting the expression of cancer genes. Aberrant expression of the genes can also be influenced by fusions, missense mutations, non-missense mutations, silent mutations, frame-shift deletions, and insertion at the molecular level. Some genes can maintain stem-cell-like properties by regulating the expression of cell surface markers like Oct4, Nanog, Sox4, etc. This chapter explains important cancer genes, genetic mutations, and gene variations that can influence the risk of having cancer and induces cancer formation.

Chromosome 5

Chromosome 5 presents an extensive collection of genes, and includes several cancer-associated ones. The contribution of chromosome 5 in abnormalities is evident through somatic translocations, germline, somatic, and, in some instances, expression of genes. Various syndromes are associated with chromosome 5, such as 5q minus syndrome, leading to the development of acute myeloid leukemia, PDGFRBassociated chronic eosinophilic leukemia contributing to acute myeloid leukemia, and myelodysplastic syndromes. Studies propose that a few genes on chromosome 5 play important roles withinside the increase and department of cells. When chromosome segments are deleted, as in a few instances of AML and MDS, those crucial genes are missing. Without those genes, cells can develop and divide too speedy and in an out-o- -control way. Researchers are trying to perceive the genes on chromosome five that might be associated with AML and MDS.

Chromosome 4

Chromosome 4 represents around 6 percent of the total DNA in the cell with 191 million DNA base pairs. Genetic changes in chromosome 4, such as somatic mutation, and chromosomal rearrangement like translocation, gene deletion, etc., have been reported to develop several types of cancer. This includes leukemias, multiple myeloma, oesophageal squamous cell carcinoma, prostate cancer, breast cancer, bladder cancer, etc. In this chapter, we have listed genes residing in chromosome 4, which further frequently support cancer development, progression, and metastasis.

Chromosome 3

Myriad genes in the genome have been implicated in cancer. However, a focused compilation of genes from the same chromosome would provide a valuable detailed yet succinct catalog for researchers, advantageous in quickly understanding the leading roles played by these genes in cancer. This chapter fulfills the above aim of furnishing a pocket dictionary- like a concise yet meticulous explanation of many genes from Chromosome 3, describing these genes’ functional essentialities in various cancers. Such a judicious collection of genes from a single chromosome is probably the first of its kind. The multiple inputs in this chapter from Chromosome 3 include oncogenes (BCL6, RAF1), tumor suppressor genes (SRGAP3, FHIT), transcription factors (FOXP1, MITF), fusion genes (MECOM), and many other types. With approximately 1085 genes spanning 198 million base pairs, Chromosome 3 constitutes 6.5% of the total DNA.

Chromosome 2

The human chromosome 2 was formed by a head-to-head fusion mutation caused by two chromosomes of our ancestors. The gorilla and chimpanzee contain 48 chromosomes in contrast to 46 chromosomes in humans. Ten million years ago, the two chromosomes of apes underwent telomere-to-telomere fusion that gave rise to human chromosome 2. Apart from the exciting history, the human chromosome 2 is involved in various genetic conditions caused due to chromosomal deletions and duplications, leading to SATB2 (Special AT-rich sequence-binding protein 2)-associated syndrome, MBD5 (Methyl-CpG-binding domain 5)-associated neurodevelopmental disorder, 2q37 deletion syndrome, partial trisomy 2, myelodysplastic syndrome as well as cancer. These mutations cause different human abnormalities, such as craniofacial anomalies, cleft palate, genitourinary tract anomalies, microcephaly, hypotonia, heart defects, anemia, and myeloid malignancies. This chapter discusses 50 genes of human chromosome 2 involved in various cancer types.

Chromosome 1

Chromosome 1 is the largest human chromosome, constituting approximately 249 million base pairs. Chromosome 1 is the largest metacentric chromosome, with “p” and “q” arms of the chromosome almost similar in length. Chromosome 1 abnormalities or inclusion of any mutations leads to developmental defects, mental, psychological, cancer, etc., among the most common diseases. 1/10th of the genes in chromosome 1 have been reported its involvement in cancer growth and development. These cancer genes result from chromosomal rearrangement, fusion genes, somatic mutations, point mutation, gene insertion, gene deletion, and many more. Some of these cancer-causing genes appear to be involved in cancer more often, and other novel genes are also enlisted in this chapter.

Future Challenges in Probiotics-based Anticancer Immunotherapy

Anticancer immunotherapy is a promising approach to the treatment of cancer. Probiotics have been introduced as a potential candidate to contribute to the success of the anticancer immunotherapy approach. However, current and future challenges in probiotics-based anticancer immunotherapy should be addressed to allow better utilization and understanding of the limitations of the use of probiotics in such an approach. This chapter highlights the safety issues related to probiotics use in human subjects, such as adverse effects, bacteremia and risk-benefits analysis. It also briefly discusses the status of the use of probiotics in human clinical trials to assess the therapeutic effects of probiotics in the anticancer immunotherapy approach. More human clinical trials are needed and should follow the principles of Good Clinical Practice (GCP), with methodologies and end-points, useful to define outcomes by considering their physiological and clinical meaning. Challenges related to the properties of different probiotic species, their viability, and their strain-specific therapeutic effects have been highlighted. It also spotlights the contemporary state of personalized treatment for cancer patients using selected probiotic strains individually and/or in combination. Careful consideration should be given to these issues in the use of probiotic supplements in anticancer immunotherapy in clinical practice in the future.

Probiotic Formulations For Anticancer Immunity

Probiotics are defined as “viable microorganisms which, when administered in adequate amounts, promote health benefits on the host”. These health benefits may include maintaining a healthy gut microbiota, reducing cholesterol levels, formation of antimicrobial agents and vitamins, competitive inhibition of pathogenic bacteria in terms of attachment site and nutrition, immunity-boosting, improvement of calcium absorption, preventing constipation, and increased trans-epithelial resistance. Cancer is expressed as the abnormal division and reproduction of cells and has a multifactorial pathology. In mortality, cancer is in second place worldwide, which is evident from the report that one out of every four deaths in the USA is due to cancer. Furthermore, the prevalence of cancer is 24% and 21% for men and women, respectively. Probiotics used in the prevention and treatment of cancer often prevent early death due to complications caused by infection, particularly in GIT. The current article mainly discusses different conventional and non-conventional formulations of probiotics. It also discusses probiotics and immunity against cancer, safety, and current regulation regarding probiotics.

Prebiotics and Postbiotics for Anticancer Immunity

Cancer remains a daunting task for clinicians and scientists. Many scientists across the globe are toiling in their labs to find an effective and safe treatment modality for cancer. Although significant stride has been achieved in the field of cancer treatment, and millions of precious lives have been saved using available therapeutic strategies, viz. chemotherapy, radiation therapy, biologics and surgical intervention. However, the search for the panacea for cancer is still not over, and new dimensions are being constantly explored. Maneuvering the immune system for controlling and treating cancer is a new fascinating field, and rigorous researches are underway. The importance of anticancer immunity as a promising treatment approach has been recognised even by the Nobel Prize Authority and James P. Allison and Tasuku Honjo were jointly awarded the 2018 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their revolutionary research in cancer immunotherapy. This chapter discusses the different aspects of immune system response vis a vis cancer development and strategies to manipulate the immune system through prebiotics and postbiotics to control and cure the different types of cancer. Prebiotics and postbiotics are being explored extensively for their role in modifying disease progression and control of cancer. Prebiotics and postbiotics are considered safe alternatives to manipulate the immune system in order to get therapeutic benefits for cancer.

Probiotics as Adjuvants in Anticancer Immunity

Cancer is a multifactorial disease and is the second leading cause of death globally. The strength of the immune system is critical to fighting against cancer. It has been documented that probiotics play a crucial role in successfully preventing and treating several forms of cancer through microbiota and immunological modulation. Probiotics-related research has gained attention due to its ability to modulate cancer via different pathways like downregulation of oncogene expression, inhibition of kinases, induction of autophagy, reactivation of tumor suppressors, etc. Probiotics are used as an adjuvant in anticancer therapy because of their unique properties. It helps the human immune system function at its best to detect and kill the cells that can become cancerous. Administering a healthy or immune-potentiating probiotic as an immunotherapy adjuvant is a more practical way to deal with several diseases in clinical settings. Apart from direct anticancer effects, microbiome-derived products, especially metabolites, directly affect cancer cells and indirectly act as signals for immunomodulatory action. Probiotics can efficiently produce or release compounds/metabolites with anticarcinogenic activity. Some studies have shown that combining anticancer drugs with probiotics can reduce the harmful effects of chemotherapy while also improving the therapeutic impact. Despite all these concepts and proofs, the regulation of microbial intake as a medication category poses a therapeutic challenge, and the data are still limited. The viability of probiotics as adjuvants offering advantages by targeting cancer and reducing anticancer side effects, particularly in cancer patients, needs to be investigated further.

Probiotics-based Anticancer Immunity In Lymphomas

The gut microbiome can play an important role in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. An imbalance in the gut microbiome can lead to pro-inflammatory immune responses and the initiation of disease processes, including cancer. Lymphocytes play a significant role in the reaction to bacterial colonization, mainly by prompting a safe reaction to initiation. Most immunologically inhabitant cells are continually signaled by dendritic cells or other antigen-presenting cells that collect intestinal samples. Therefore, the microbiota is a pivotal contributor to developing lymphoma, and specific changes to microbiota composition could help prevent the risk. Microbial morphology can affect and control humanoids. The difference in the composition of these microbes is associated with tumor development. Moreover, with the increased exploration and knowledge of the connection between human microbiota and carcinogenesis, the use of these findings to predict, prevent, or diagnose lymphomas has attracted great attention. Probiotics have gained increasing medical significance due to their beneficial effect on the human body, which has been linked to the prevention and support of the treatment of many chronic diseases, including cancer, in the absence of side effects. Chemotherapy and immunotherapy are extensively used for the treatment of lymphomas. But these treatments have various side effects. There is much evidence that probiotics can help in preventing cancer and support anticancer therapy. This chapter presents the latest advances in research into the effectiveness of probiotics in the prevention and treatment support of lymphoma. In addition, the chapter also describes the potential mechanisms of probiotic chemoprevention and the advisability of using probiotics in the prevention of lymphoma.

Probiotics-based Anticancer Immunity in Pancreatic Cancer

Pancreatic cancer is still one of the malignancies with a very poor prognosis worldwide. In the recent past, the gut microbiota has been shown to have a role in pancreatic cancer patients’ survival and response to the therapy. Out of the possible mechanisms, the role of gut microbiota in shaping the microbial composition of pancreatic tumor and its effect on intra-tumor immune modulation has emerged as a potential therapeutic strategy. Modulation of gut microbiota for targeting pancreatic cancer initiation, progression and therapy could be achieved through different processes like treatment through faecal microbiota transplantation (FMT), antibiotics, prebiotics, probiotics, and synbiotics. In the recent past, various clinical and experimental pieces of evidence have demonstrated the efficacy of probiotics in cancer prevention, treatment and management. In this chapter, efforts have been directed towards summarizing the prospects and challenges associated with the use of probiotics and probiotics-derived products against pancreatic cancer.

Probiotics-based Anticancer Immunity In Bladder Cancer

Bladder cancer accounts for an estimated 500,000 new cases and 200,000 deaths annually. The prevalence of bladder cancer is high, with more than 1.6 million people affected worldwide. Modern techniques not based on microbiological cultures, such as Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) of the 16S rRNA gene, have provided robust evidence that a urinary commensal microbiota exists. Few studies have shown a detailed analysis of the urinary microbiota in patients with bladder cancer. Therefore, the nature and role of many relevant bladder bacteria in the initiation and progress of bladder cancer remain under investigation. This chapter describes the main studies in this regard, as well as the underlying mechanisms, mainly immune-based. Moreover, if we talk about bladder cancer and the feasibility of probiotics as an alternative treatment acting on the microbiota, we must start by mentioning the functionality of the Bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine. Based on the immunogenic performance of the BCG vaccine, new therapies with probiotic bacteria were proposed, and in vivo and in vitro studies were performed with positive results in terms of tumor size reduction and recurrence reduction. Finally, the potential use of Bifidobacterium as a vector in specific gene therapy against bladder cancer is described.

Probiotics-based Anticancer Immunity In Prostate Cancer

The human body is colonized by microbial cells that are estimated to be as abundant as human cells, yet their genome is roughly 100 times the human genome, providing significantly more genetic diversity. The past decade has observed an explosion of interest in examining the existence of microbiota in the human body and understanding its role in various diseases, including prostate cancer. Studies show that probiotics provide positive results in prostate cancer prevention and treatment. However, some studies argue that they should not be used, putting forward the fact they may cause infection in patients with very weak immunity. This chapter summarizes key microbiota alterations observed in prostate cancer niches, their association with clinical stages, and their potential use in anticancer therapy and management. In addition, the chapter discusses microbiota-based therapeutic approaches for prostate cancer.

Biological Importance of Some Functionalized Schiff Base-Metal Complexes

Schiff base ligands or compounds are useful in modern inorganic chemistry. Numerous transition metal-based catalysts have been synthesized with Schiff base scaffolds. The application of such Schiff bases is also found in biological studies. Herein, we have discussed the various synthetic procedures of diversified Schiff base compounds and their metal complexes. The biological activity of those complexes has also been delineated in this chapter with special emphasis. Various metal complexes [Co(II), Ni(II), Cu(II), Zn(II) and Fe(III)] with different Schiff base compounds displayed anti-fungal activity. Similarly, anti-viral activity was seen with Co(II) and Pd(II) metal complexes. Many Schiff base-metal complexes are found, which showed anti-cancer activity against various carcinoma cells like HpG2, MCF-7, A549, HCT116, Caco-2 and PC-3. Similarly, the transition metal complexes (generally 1st and 2 nd row) of Schiff bases also exhibited good anti-bacterial activity against various bacterial strains. The ionic-liquid-tagged Schiff bases have also been found to be good anti-microbial agents

Cytotoxic Activity Methods

Natural products have formed the basis of traditional medicine systems throughout human history. Today, drug discovery studies from natural origins continue rapidly and efficiently with modern methods. Among the many activities, cytotoxic activity is related to the behaviour of test material on cell viability and cellular growth. Cytotoxicity methods, used as a screening test or initial test for guiding other activities, provide useful information for biocompatibility studies for medical devices or materials, drug discovery and development processes, toxicity evaluation of cosmetics, research of disease mechanisms and treatments, and determination of chemopreventive agents. In vitro cytotoxicity analyses have emerged as an alternative to in vivo studies and have become preferable due to their ease of application, standardization, rapid, low cost, and compatibility with data from in vivo studies. With cell-based cytotoxicity studies, basic information about the cytostatic and cytotoxic effects of the tested substance is obtained. In studies dealing with natural products, the most appropriate cytotoxic method should be selected according to the properties and chemical structures of natural compounds, the ultimate goal of the study, cell types, etc. Although there are many cytotoxicity methods, this chapter is an introductory overview of the most commonly used assay methods to estimate the cytotoxic activity in natural products.

Application of Bioceramics to Cancer Therapy

Despite the great medical developments, cancer remains the main cause of death amongst individuals under 85 years. Novel therapeutic approaches for cancer therapy are constantly being developed, and bioactive ceramics show great promise in this respect. Bioceramics contain inorganic components, which help in the repair, replacement, and regeneration of human cells; for that reason, their use is growing in scope. Bioceramics have a flexible nature and can be modified with biologically active substances for a particular treatment or improvement of tissue or organ functionality. Materials, including glass-ceramics and calcium phosphate, can be loaded with specific drugs, growth factors, peptides, and hormones in a particular fashion. Also, for the elimination of infections and inflammations after surgery, the surface of bioceramics can be modified, and antibiotics can be introduced to prevent bacterial biofilm formation. In the context of bone cancer diagnosis and treatment, mesoporous bioceramics have demonstrated excellent properties not only for being osteoinductive and osteoconductive but also for drug delivery, therefore, being rendered as a remarkable platform for the creation of bone tissue engineering scaffolds for the purpose of bone cancer treatment. Furthermore, the creation of ceramic magnetic nanoparticles as thermoseeds for hyperthermia exhibits promising development for cancer treatment. The conjugation of ceramic nanoparticles with therapeutic agents and heat treatment via different magnetic fields improve the efficacy of hyperthermia to the extent that it makes them an alternative to chemotherapy. This chapter discusses the therapeutic value of bioceramics.