Nanobiotechnology: Principles and Applications

Ovarian cancer, an aggressive epithelial cancer, remains a major cause of cancer mortality worldwide among women, but it can be diagnosed at an early stage also. Surgical removal of ovarian tumour is a good option for the initial treatment, but this is suitable only at the early stage of cancer. Surgery and other therapies like chemotherapy, hormone role therapy and immunotherapy alone are insufficient for the treatment of today’s advanced ovarian cancer. The aim of this book chapter is to review the use of nano-particles in the treatment of ovarian cancer, along with surgery. It is believed that nano therapies have lots of advantages like they stabilize drugs in our body, deliver and penetrate the drugs to tumour-specific cells and can profile the toxicity of chemotherapy. This book chapter also covers the development of nanotherapies, types of nanocarriers and their role in ovarian cancer diagnosis and treatment.

Environmental clean-up for the removal of recalcitrant pollutants is a global concern, especially in the terms of industrial waste. Research over the years has led to the development of various conventional physicochemical and biological methods for the decontamination of numerous pollutants. These methods however are reported to be extremely expensive and with limited success. Nano-remediation has been reported as an effective alternative in this regard. The chapter outlines the use of various nanoparticles as an innovative and cutting-edge technology for the clean-up of environmental pollutants. It describes the use of fabricated nanoparticles to remove pollutants. The chapter offers an overview of current research developments in the emerging field of nano-remediation with special emphasis on textile dyes, elucidating the mechanisms involved.

Nanotechnological interventions have extensively been used as an efficient non-invasive approach in agriculture for disease protection, to improve yield and many more. The use of engineered nanomaterials (like metal-oxide nanoparticles) as fertilizers,pesticides, carriers for genetic material/RNA/protein, sensors for detection of contaminants and toxic compounds etc. have been extensively studied and reported. Interaction between plants and nanomaterials plays an important role in their applications for various purposes in agriculture and otherwise. In this chapter, mechanisms of uptake and mode of action of three commonly used metal oxide (TiO2, CuO, ZnO) nanomaterials in plants have been reviewed. The chapter also summarises the various studies conducted on the effect of these nanomaterials on different agricultural food crops in the last 2 decades. The thorough review of existing literature on the aforementioned areas indicates that although the published data on terrestrial phytotoxicity of metal oxide NPs is increasing continuously but surprisingly the range of selected plants is still narrow (mostly agricultural crops and seed plants), thus random selection of plants (outside this narrow range) should be made to gain better insights into the various impacts of nanomaterials on plants.

Chemical fertilizers are crucial in the production of cost-effective agricultural crops. However, long-term usage of chemical fertilizers will deteriorate the soil quality and it is hazardous to human health. Scientists and researchers across the globe are seeking the help of nanotechnology as a possible solution to combat the hazardous effect of chemical fertilizers. Nanotechnology is a branch of science and engineering concerned with the matter at the nanoscale or one billionth of a meter. Nanofertilizers are modified fertilizers that are synthesized using techniques of nanotechnology involving various physicochemical and biological methods. These methods aid in enhancing their attributes and composition, which leads to a positive effect on crop productivity. Nanofertilizers are far more beneficial when compared to chemical fertilizers as the former are cost-effective, less toxic and show controlled and regulated release of nutrients to plants. This chapter is primarily concerned with the various methods employed in nanofertilizer synthesis, the economic importance of nanofertilizers and their advantage over conventional chemical fertilizers. 

Nanoparticles are those agents that are made-up of single or a combination of single or multiple materials which are very small in size ranging from 1 to 100 nanometers. Several studies reveal that nanoparticles have features that interact effectively with microorganisms and can help in treating multidrug-resistant organisms. These have intrinsic antimicrobial activity and are of various types broadly divided into organic and inorganic nanoparticles. Nanoparticles can engage with bacteria and travel across the bacterial cells and host cell membranes, and help treat ESKAPE pathogens which are among the most notorious multidrug resistant superbugs. These pathogens have MDR features and have multiple types of MDR mechanisms including drug inactivation/alteration, modification of drug binding sites/targets, reduced intracellular drug accumulation and biofilm formation. For targeting different types of MDR, there are multiple types of nanoparticles such as metal nanoparticles, nanostructures, leukocyte membrane-coated nanoparticles, red blood cell membrane-coated nanoparticles, cancer cell membrane-coated nanoparticles, and platelet membranecoated nanoparticles among others. Antimicrobial nanobiotics identified and synthesized to date harbor a vast diversity of intrinsic and modified physicochemical properties and have applications in diagnostics. No technology is without its challenges and the same is true for nanobiotics. The major challenges in this field of nanobioticbased therapeutics are their allergic responses, assembly and pharmacokinetics. This chapter will elaborate on the mechanisms of action of various types of nanobiotics present as cost-effective solutions useful in a variety of applications in the treatment of MDR pathogens with a special focus on ESKAPE pathogens.

Metallic nanoparticles against bacteria have increased recently due to their unique properties. Many metals like silver, gold, copper, aluminum, zinc and their oxides have been shown to have antibacterial properties. The activity of the nanoparticles is affected by their physico-chemical properties. Different types of mechanisms are proposed for the antibacterial actions against various types of bacteria. The metal-based nanoparticles are synthesized by the top-down methods and bottomup methods. However, the latter methods are used effectively against many types of bacteria including antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

Rapid and accurate identification of pathogens has always been challenging. There are a number of methods for the detection of pathogens, but still they face critical challenges. In general, rapidity, sensitivity, and accuracy are the important criteria that limit the applicability of classical methods. Nanomaterials-based biosensors have been proven to be effective for the early and accurate quantification of pathogens. Interactions between target pathogen and nanomaterials are very important, as they provide a measurable signal in biosensors. Nanobiosensors are effective in detecting pathogenic bacteria in various samples, including food, water, blood, and other matrices. In this chapter, we intend to discuss the existence and importance of electrochemical-based biosensors for quantification. 

Nanoparticles (NPs) and nanotechnology have penetrated every walk of life. The nanotechnology-based products include pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, electronic goods, food, food packaging, and household products of daily use. The unique physicochemical properties of nanoparticles also make them a potent toxicant. The evidence suggests that nanoparticles are used in humans' neurological disorders, pulmonary disorders, and other ailments. The situation is alarming as NPs may make their way to the human fetus. The regulations for checking the use of NPs are still in their early stages. The NP toxicity has not only affected the human race but the entire Biosphere. The chapter discusses the different assays and models to study nanotoxicity. The models used in deciphering the molecular mechanism are primarily in vitro models, particularly 2D and 3D cell cultures of primary, cancerous and normal cell lines. 2D cultures are monolayers, while 3D cultures can be spheroids and organoids derived from stem cells. Cell culture models serve to be a good assessment model but due to lack of systemic complexity, results may not be explicitly extrapolated to humans. In order to fill the gap, in vivo models are available. In vivo models are helpful in assessing the systemic toxicity in organisms. The in vivo models are further categorized as models to study human nanotoxicity and the models to study nanoecotoxicity. Out of the plethora of models, certain specific models are briefly discussed here. The ethical regulations for the usage of animal models are stringent which sometimes make it challenging to acquire animal models. Such challenges can be overcome by developing futuristic models like a lab or animal on a chip, and other computation models which may make nanotoxicological assessments easy and accurate, thereby helping in making efficient regulatory policies for NPs usage in various consumer products safeguarding the mankind and the biosphere.