The Primitive Mind and Modern Man

In this chapter we discuss a number of interlinked topics about what we can gain from a study of primitive cultures. What are their patterns of behavior or ways of thinking about life? A principle theme is that the modern mind is fundamentally primitive. We will compare the “primitive” world view with our “modern” counterpart, and come to understand the fundamental richness of primitive cultures. Explanation of the term “primitive.” Primitive mentality sheds light on how our minds work. Many of the practices are still current and can help us understand our own, parallel patterns of living. Discussion of what is meant by “culture,” and “human nature.” Discussion of prevalence of communal lifestyle and social cooperation, conformity to norms, non-market economies, food-sharing, ancestral worship, social atomism of some primitive cultures (i.e., lack of central leadership), prevalence of custom over law, reliance on myths and magical thinking, animistic connection to the environment. We will discuss the trend toward acculturation, the tendency of some indigenous populations to exist side-by-side with the dominant culture, the tension between the pressure to adopt new customs and the pull to retain the old. The desire to resist assimilation into the dominant group, and the inevitability of cultures changing within themselves. We will discuss the downside of acculturation: colonial imperialism, imposition of paternalistic laws outlawing traditional practices, dispossession of lands, deprivation of political power, resettlement, resulting in a demoralized population, trend of making amends for mistreatment of indigenous people in the past. We will discuss the prevalence of nativistic movements to revive and preserve traditional cultural practices.

There are tremendous variations in how people carry on their lives across cultures. All cultures have some sort of system of “public morals” or norms or rules that provide a structure that guides behavior. Cultural relativism holds that moral principles are relative, so that there is no such thing as a “one-size-fits-all” morality. The forms under which good and evil appear are different. By coming to know the presuppositions of people, we can better understand their moral perspective. We will discuss idea that, despite variations in behavior patterns among cultures, there are certain basic moral concepts recognized by all peoples-e.g., respect for life and property, some form of religious faith. All societies have some means of dealing with social outcasts, criminals, cheats and the like. The dilemma of cultural relativism is whether it is appropriate to interfere with practices of other cultures that we regard as morally repugnant. Today the activities within one culture can affect people in other cultures-most notably in the arena of environmental pollution. People have a limit as to what sort of things they will tolerate in other cultures. All nations condemn genocide, slave trade, torture, the use of human subjects for experimentation, and summary execution. In studying diverse cultures we should keep an open mind in taking in the practices that we might find offensive or repugnant or even barbaric. Change is particularly difficult when cultures sincerely believe, as they do, that their moral practices are sound, well-founded and of fundamental importance to their very identity as people.

Ruth Benedict (1934) opened up a whole line of thinking regarding two types of culture: Apollinian and Dionysian. Dionysian cultures exhibit certain extremes in behavior, and there is importance ascribed to dreams and visions, also to self-fulfillment, self-expression, rights, liberties and individual accomplishment. Moreover, the idea of escape from the five senses through altered states of consciousness, intoxication, torture, self-mutilation, deprivation, etc. Dionysian cultures are imbued with magical thinking, i.e., the belief that thoughts, words or actions have causal power. Dreams and visions are very important because they are thought to contain messages from the spirit realm or direct visitations from ancestors. The contradiction in Dionysian cultures is that they tend to be tenaciously tradition-bound-yet at the same time they seek to escape from limitations through supernatural experiences, ecstatic trances, orgiastic ceremonies, and other excessive behavior that, at least under everyday circumstances, would be frowned upon. Paradoxically Dionysian cultures celebrate harmony and cooperation, and yet individuality, which at times can be a threat to unity.

Apollinian cultures, in contrast, embrace moderation, steadfastness, conservatism, conformity, measured attitudes, precedent and tradition. There is distrust of individualism and emotionalism. Power comes from cult membership, verbatim ritual, conformity, sobriety, suffering, self-denial, introvertism, and moderation.

The idea of mana permeates the customs of many cultures, including modern cultures. Mana provides the theoretical basis for such beliefs as animism, totemism, witchcraft, and sorcery. Mana is the means by which power is transmitted from one being to another. It means, roughly speaking, power, but a force altogether distinct from physical power-a power associated with a spirit, a totemic ancestor, or other supernatural agency. All things are thought to possess a “vital essence” that can be transferred by contact. Mana is thought to be expressed most notably through thoughts and words, and this is evident in shamanic healing, folk medicine, or simply prayer intended for healing. The conviction of a person uttering an incantation is thought to be an element relating to the efficacy of a prayer, curse or ritual. There is widespread belief that mana subsists in names, as well as in artifacts, tools and weapons. A club or spear of a great warrior, for example, is the abode of powerful mana. Objects such as amulets and charms are thought to be imbued with mana, either intrinsically, or after being consecrated for certain purposes, usually for the purpose of averting evil or to secure good fortune.

The idea behind animism takes mana one step further and proposes that all of nature is animated, that is, imbued with consciousness, or with life, that all phenomena of nature, including rocks, caves, mountains rain, thunder, lightning, stars, etc., are imbued with a life essence or soul. Animism is a kind of environmental philosophy-that not only are people to be respected, but all of creation must be respected. A good deal of the ceremonies as well as practical guidance in primitive cultures pertain to communication with the spirits of animals, of plants, and of objects of nature. Many modern day superstitions are animistic in orientation (e.g., if a black cat crosses your path, this means bad luck). Soothsayers, medicine men, and fortune-tellers use animistic means to forecast the future (e.g., interpreting signs from the clouds or the cries of animals). Animism accounts for the reverence accorded animals in many cultures (e.g., tuna reverence, bear reverence, totemic protection of certain animal species). People of all cultures will talk to their plants to influence their growth. Indigenous populations have great attachment and reverence to their land, which they believe have sacred properties and healing energies. Even idols and figureheads on ships are thought to possess protective and communicative powers (e.g., touching or kissing the statute will impart a certain blessing). Sacred ceremonial objects, such as the shaman’s drum, are thought to be potent vehicles for connecting between the human and spirit worlds. Children of all cultures are particularly prone towards animistic beliefs and practices (e.g., endowing personality to dolls, attributing consciousness to other inanimate objects). The idea of artificial intelligence borrows animistic ideas.

In this chapter we discuss the concept of totemism. Totems are animals, plants or natural phenomena (a mountain, stream, volcano, etc.) which which a group will identify. Tribes often believe they are literally descended from their totems. The totem might be regarded as a guardian, helpmate, or a source of strength to the people. Often a people’s mythology will attribute special qualities to totemic animals-e.g., that they possessed remarkable powers which transformed chaos of the universe into order. Some totems reflect the economic and social importance of the objects concerned-e.g., the sea might be the totem. Totems are objects of reverence and fear-the totem is subject to rituals and taboos, violation of which has dire and immediate consequences. Usually the totemic species cannot be killed or eaten, except for communion-type ceremonies. For instance, for many aborigines in Australia, the kangaroo or iguana is their totem. Totemic beliefs reveal a peoples’ philosophy of life, their morals, their spirituality. In modern cultures totems are seen in flags and mascots. Modern society embraces totemism in many ways-e.g., national flags, mascots for sports teams, and the tendency of people to think of their homeland in endearing, reverential terms.

Primitive cultures have a striking relationship with animals, and remarkable rituals associated with hunting. Animals not only provide meat, but also hides and fur, and bones for fashioning into artifacts and ceremonial objects. Two broad areas of hunting rituals are one pertaining to “bribing” or coaxing animals to present themselves to the hunters; and the other involves appeasing the spirits of the animals once they have been slain. When animals are hunted, they are usually treated in a distinctive, reverent manner, partly to propitiate the ghosts of the animals, so as not to be harmed by them. Many cultures also show great respect to plants grown for food: In Papua New Guinea, for example, yams, a major food staple, are carefully attended to, and people talk to a yam as if it were human. The practice of reciting magical spells on traps, in order to attract game, is practiced in many cultures. In numerous cultures, ceremonies take place in preparation for the whaling season, including ceremonial launching of the boats, singing of whaling songs, donning of new clothes, and performing a ritual of “spearing” the woman whom they designated to represent a whale. Bears seem to be more venerated than any other hunted animal in the world. Elaborate ceremonies surround bear hunting. Bears have high intelligence, they walk in a human-like manner, they sit down against a tree with their paws, like arms, at their sides and perhaps one leg drawn up under their body. They exhibit a wide range of emotions that are very humanlike. The Nivkh people celebrate the Bear Festival, which involves a ritual sacrifice of a bear to was to commemorate deceased ancestors, or on special occasions. In the disposal of the bear’s remains, there is great respect accorded the bones, which are ceremoniously and carefully buried intact in proper position. The Motu in Papua New Guinea treat tuna with great reverence, and have elaborate preparations for the fishing season, including fasting, ritual bathing, singing, and dancing. They bless the fish before killing them. If a tuna is accidentally knocked against the side of the canoe, the fisherman must go down on his knees and kiss the fish; otherwise no more will enter the nets that day. Cattle and other livestock are treated with reverence in India, Northeast Africa, and other regions. Native Americans in the North Pacific have revitalized the First Salmon Ceremony, an aboriginal “first fruits” ritual, involving elaborate preparation and ceremonies to welcome the salmon. Protocols carefully prescribe the manner of fishing, cooking, eating, and disposal of fish bones. Reindeer breeders in Siberia practice a communal reindeer sacrifice in order to insure food, happiness, health and prosperity.

Shamanism is a widespread healing discipline, grounded in animism. Healing, divination, rain-making and settling disputes are among the shaman’s duties. Many people rely on shamans for primary health care and spiritual guidance. The mind, body and spirit are treated as a unit by shamans. The shaman will seek to determine the supernatural cause of an illness. This can be anything from the violation of a taboo or some other transgression against the supernatural world, possession by an evil spirit, sorcery practiced by an enemy, or the actions of an offended ancestral ghost.

The evil eye is a widespread belief in the world, and is thought to be associated with a human propensity towards envy. The objects of envy in primitive cultures are mainly crops, food, livestock, children, and good health. In evil eye cultures people tend to keep a watchful eye on one another. The evil eye takes into account the ability of an onlooker to project psychic energy through the eyes. The evil eye causes the victim to be helpless-dominated, gripped by an overpowering occult power. Often infliction of the evil eye is unintentional and unconscious; it occurs during a moment of coveting something belonging to another. Evil eye cultures are those in which people regard goods to be limited, so that if one person possesses more than others, it is thought to have been obtained at everyone else’s expense. People in these cultures are wary of compliments, as these can be disguised expressions of envy, and hence occasions for infliction of the evil eye. In many cultures where there is scarcity of food, people will conceal food or try and conceal a prosperous harvest from the gaze of others so as to avoid the problem of envy. Envy is widespread in modern society, but is almost a taboo topic, and one will rarely admit to it. Throughout the world people use talismans, charms, religious symbols and other devices to ward off the evil eye-wearing them, putting them on doorposts, on automobile rearview mirrors. In some cultures there is a high incidence of paranoia-with people fearing that others might poison them, for instance, or that malice is the source of every ailment or misfortune; in Western cultures paranoia takes expression in conspiracy theories and the belief that semi-secret groups control the economy of the world.

Altered states of consciousness are sought after for religious and spiritual purposes in cultures throughout the world. An altered state of consciousness is a kind of disassociation from ordinary consciousness, and can take on many different forms. Attaining altered states of consciousness is a hallmark of rites in primitive cultures, as well as urban charismatic churches. Altered states of consciousness can be induced in many different ways, from drugs to shamanic drumming to fasting, to dancing in discos with strobe lights. Substances used by various cultures to induce altered states of consciousness are: ayahuasca, tobacco, peyote, kava, alcohol, mead, qat, psychedelic drugs. There is extensive literature on the ceremonial use of peyote among Indians in the United States and Mexico, where its use extends back about 2000 years. Kava, a mild narcotic that has been a stimulantrelaxant- social drink throughout Oceania for at least a thousand years. Alcohol is a culturally accepted intoxicant used worldwide. The amphetamine-like drug, qat, is commonly chewed in Yemen on social occasions. Psychedelic states, induced by LSD and other drugs, have well known effects in terms of alteration of consciousness.

Trance and possession states are a worldwide phenomena, usually voluntarily induced. Practically everyone has at one time or another fallen into a trance or possession state, either spontaneously or induced by drugs or by circumstances such as extreme stress, physical exertion or deprivation. In the West, trance and possession phenomena are for the most part associated with bad things-demonic possession, madness, insanity. But in many cultures trance and possession states are customary in religious ceremonies, rites to cure illness, rituals to attain communion with ancestral spirits, totemic guardians, and a means of practicing mediumship and prophesy-and are even regarded as a social responsibility. For instance, after a successful pig hunt, hunters in Papua New Guinea will seek to enter a trance to fulfill a social responsibility of giving what the spirits ask as a reward for providing a successful hunt. In many cultures, mediums and other channelers are thought to have a heightened perception of spiritual truths. There is a continuum of sorts, a trance being a slight alteration of consciousness, whereas possession is a “deep trance” in which the individual seems to be somewhat taken over by a supernatural agency. Some possession states are hysterical in nature in that the individual might lose control over equilibrium, and may tend to strike out threateningly towards others, engage in self-inflicted violence, or become blind, deaf, and entirely unresponsive during the episode. In many cultures trance and possession states are normal and empowering features of everyday human life, while psychiatrists in the West often regard such states, for the most part, as a mental disorder. In any event, all cultures regard an involuntary, uninvited trance or possession state to be undesirable and dysfunctional. Trance dances are known in many cultures and function to release emotional tension, to escape everyday worries, to provide a catharsis for primal instincts and patterns, or to provide a profound religious and spiritual experience. In many parts of the world it is normative for women to occasionally fall into a trance or possession state as a kind of protest or a way of seeking redress for their feelings of powerlessness and low status. Trance and possession states are quite common and widespread in charismatic Christian healing services. Extreme involuntary possession-demonic possession-is indicated by violent, aggressive behavior, a distinct experience of being controlled by an alien force, a change of voice, convulsions, intermittent states of unconsciousness, superhuman strength, and obscene behavior. Its emergence is usually gradually, and many believe is prompted by either witchcraft or by the victim’s conscious or unconscious inviting of evil spirits. In chronic cases rituals in the form of exorcism will be performed by a priest, shaman, or medicineman.

Magic, sorcery and witchcraft-terms often used interchangeably-fulfill many emotional and practical needs in many cultures. Chiefly, magical thinking is a way of coping with uncertainty-to help abate anxiety by seeking the aid of supernatural forces to help solve problems. Magical ceremonies-for healing, to alter the weather, to produce good crops or a successful hunt, to punish wrongdoers, and so on-are part and parcel of the work of shamans, medicine-men and other healing practitioners. When illness strikes, shamans or other healers will invariably determine, before anything else, whether the patient has been subjected to witchcraft. Magical techniques are omnipresent in conventional religions of the world-gifts, offerings, or sacrifices, lighting candles, kissing icons. Magic is rightly feared because it can be used for antisocial or disruptive purposes-to cause illness, death, accidents or misfortune in others. Often the mere threat of sorcery or making known that sorcery has been practiced makes it surprisingly easy to settle a quarrel. A magical spell is said to work through the law of contagion-involving some “essence” or bodily residue of the victim, such as nail clippings, hair, food leavings, an article of clothing, etc. The spell works through the particular medium utilized so as to affect the victim. In many cultures people take great care not to leave nail clippings, hair or food leftovers where any enemy might utilize them for sorcery. It is commonly thought that the victim of witchcraft may well “deserve” the hex as just desserts for some transgression, such as refusal to pay a legitimate debt, unprovoked aggression, or a breach of charity or neighborliness. Accusations of witchcraft in cases of death or illness, may lead to a feud between the victim and the sorcerer, resulting in countermeasures or blood revenge. During the witchcraft trials of Europe, England and the American colonies, people believed that witches were in liege with the Devil, who in turn granted them powers to harm others. In many cultures, vampires and zombies are thought to be real entities. The belief in witchcraft is widespread in modern cultures-people will seek potions, candles and spells to help produce financial success, jobs or other good luck, or one can hire a witch or sorcerer for various intentions such as to attract love, to mend family problems, to cure addictions, to offer help in business, etc. Occult supply stores are found in every urban center selling magical robes, potions, herbs, books, incense, and talismans. In the Southern United States a “hexing culture” is widely prevalent.

A phenomenon seen in primitive cultures is the occurrence of death by suggestion, in which strong cultural beliefs-in the violation of a taboo, for instance-cause people to believe that they will suffer imminent death or serious illness. The efficacy of these beliefs might best be explained by the phenomenon of autosuggestion whereby the subject has become convinced that death is inevitable, and for all intents and purposes gives up hope. A similar phenomenon has been reported in combat zones whereby soldiers may die of a combination of anguish, confusion and severe mental and physical shock. In communities that experienced the black plague in previous centuries many people died simply of fear of contracting an otherwise innocuous illness. Cancer patients informed of their condition are known to die, as if hexed, before the malignancy develops to the point where it could cause death. Voodoo is both a folk medical system and a means of casting spells. “Taboo death” is a phenomenon whereby people will die as a consequence of violating some taboo: People of many cultures believe that taboo violation carries automatic repercussions, even if inadvertent or accidental. The individual may well undergo a sense of panic, hopelessness and stress resulting in death in a few hours upon learning he has violated the taboo (e.g., eating a tabooed food, accidentally eating out of the chief’s bowl). Another form of death by suggestion is “pointing the bone,” whereby someone with evil designs literally points a bone at a targeted victim. Pointing the bone is thought to be so potent that the victim will be literally scared to death, gripped by paralyzing fear, and may start to get extremely weak and die.

The phenomenon of death by suggestion, so often seen in primitive cultures, is linked to the modern notion of the placebo effect. The role of suggestion in treatment-whether it is folk healing, shamanism, or other practices-cannot be underestimated. In the placebo effect, almost any treatment will work, though medically inert, so long as the patient is convinced that it has efficacy. The idea that a placebo pill will cure patients of illness is so well established a phenomenon that in clinical trials control groups receive a placebo to compare their outcome with those receiving the trial drug. The success rate of the placebo is in some cases as good as that of the genuine drug. Shamans, witch-doctors and folk healers often rely on the patient’s strong belief that the cure will be effective. The placebo effect may be an explanation for the apparently miraculous healings that sometimes occur through prayer or other religious practices.

This chapter discusses the importance of aggression, in its various modes, not only as a means of resolving conflicts, but as something important for group cohesion. Humans beings are universally capable of aggressive behavior. A common theme is that if a harm has been done, the injured party or group feel they must seek vengeance-by ceremonial fighting, revenge by sorcery, open discussion and argument, apology and forgiveness, settlement of disputes at ceremonial feasts, by the payment of compensation, or other means. Many groups believe that it is important to sustain traditional enmities with other groups, to promote solidarity within the clan. A mild form of conflict is known as petty wrangling, perhaps consisting of teasing or arguing over various privileges or prerogatives. In some cultures people will openly engage in violent displays of emotion-e.g., fights between spouses out in the open-with the expectation that others will intervene and prevent the situation from escalating. Adultery is a common source of conflict-and is remedied by monetary compensation in some cases and death of the offending party. An ancient and widespread way of settling conflicts is wergild, or blood money, presently operative in many regions. Retaliation for acts of sorcery is quite common: For example, the victim will engage in countermeasures to cast a spell on the suspected sorcerer. A pervasive phenomenon is the idea of collective responsibility: This entails that people are collectively responsible for the acts of others in their clan-for the individual only functions as a member of the group, there is tremendous strength of bond, and group consciousness is more important than individual consciousness. A man’s improper sexual advances against a girl from another tribe, for instance, may embroil whole villages until vengeance is exacted. Collective responsibility even entails the idea that revenge can be exacted against anyone in the wrongdoer’s tribe. Collective responsibility is the philosophy of modern day terrorists: the indiscriminate targeting of civilians of the enemy is justified because they are collectively responsible for the policies of their government. In many cultures the expression of anger or conflict, particularly by women, is highly improper, and emotional outbursts must be kept in check. In many of these cultures there are periodic “rituals of rebellion,” in which people will express their pent up anger at rulers and chiefs, or women at the men, singing and dancing lewdly. Rather than being socially disruptive, these rituals are ways of integrating groups and forming social balance. Dueling in the West was a long-standing mode in which men would resolve insults and minor disputes that impugned their honor. Lynching in America was also a method by which mobs would enforce a code of honor by taking the law into their own hands. In modern cultures today conflicts often take the form of vehement and unpleasantly sharp verbal attacks against adversaries-in politics and other contexts.

There are diverse cultural and religious values concerning how people show respect for the dead, and in beliefs about what happens to the soul after death. All cultures apparently believe that the body of the deceased has a certain status that needs to be respected, as well as grave sites. In many cultures anyone’s death, except perhaps for the very old, is attributed to sorcery. This may entail a revenge expedition or demand for compensation. Ancestral worship is both an ancient and modern practice. The belief that the soul continues to live after one dies extends to the idea that dead ancestors interact with the living in one way or another, that they take an interest in the lives of loved ones, that they appreciate the prayers of the living. Ancestral shrines are often built as a place to worship ancestors. Ancestors to whom obligations have not been discharged are liable not only to withhold their guidance, but can be potentially dangerous by sending illness and disaster. The belief in ghosts is widespread in primitive and modern cultures alike, and it is not uncommon for people to believe that they are being harassed by ghosts in their homes. In honoring the dead, all cultures, now as in ancient times, have customs regarding funeral rites and mourning, each unique in its own way, ranging from rock burial, cremation, mummification, embalming, or feeding the corpse to carnivorous animals. A famous cremation ritual in Bali involves a dance with strong emotional outbursts and the outright abuse of the corpses, and it is expected that people will engage in the overt expression of hostility towards the deceased. Where practiced, mortuary cannibalism is motivated by the belief was that by consuming another’s flesh, one acquires some characteristic of the person eaten. In some cultures it is the custom to burn a dead person’s house and personal belongings, burn or give away crops planted by the deceased, and avoid using the dead person’s name. In numerous cultures there is great reverence shown for the skull of the deceased. Sometimes, after burial and the lapse of time, skulls are unearthed in mortuary ceremonies, decorated and then given a secondary burial in caves or other sacred places. In Madagascar there is a custom to open ancestral tombs for the purpose of rewrapping the corpses with new silk shrouds every six or seven years.

The social practice known as potlatches prevails to this day primarily among tribes of the North American Indians and cultures of Melanesia. Potlatches are part of an economic system that is based on compulsory gift-giving. Potlatches are given to display wealth of the host, to distribute gifts to mark a milestone-a funeral, a wedding, initiation, the conferral of a title, the completion of a project, or as a means of addressing grievances or announcing a vendetta. Potlatches involve feasting, dancing, giving of gifts by the host, and selfglorifying speeches by the host and his cohorts. There tends to be a conspicuous display of wealth, and this may involve the destruction of property as a way of validating rank or status. Gifts are such things as cloth, blankets, pots and pans, clocks, sewing machines, tables, shawls, and consumables such as meat, fat and skins. The gifts are supposed to be a demonstration of the excess or abundance that the host has available. Potlatches are analogous to the practice of giving a lavish party is a means of displaying wealth and garnering the admiration (and envy) that it invariably evokes. Potlatches are regarded by the people as crucial to gain prestige in the community.

All people have the need for status, prestige and social approval, often expressed and manifested in diverse ways, such as the potlatches discussed in the preceding chapter. The ways people seek acceptance in one’s group and acquire esteem, prestige, and power in the community, take different forms-varying from merit achieved after a successful fishing expedition, to performers of a dance carried out with exceptional skill, to winning races, matches or sporting contests. The possession of certain goods will confer prestige on the owner, although the item might be relatively insignificant to outsiders. For example, in parts of Papua New Guinea the most highly prized item of prestige is a pair of rounded pig’s tusks, which are worn on ceremonial occasions only by elderly. Prestige may come from the right to certain names, or the right to perform certain rituals. Prestige may come from various honors, titles, or powers conferred by inheritance, such as the right to use certain songs and dances, or to use particular kinds of magic. Prestige may come from membership in certain clubs or, in Melanesia, the local secret men’s society. In Asian cultures social approval is associated with the concept of “face.” Losing face, by committing a socially disapproved act, is so humiliating that people can be driven to suicide.

Culture-bound syndromes are patterns of abnormal behavior that occur exclusively within certain cultural groups. This topic brings into consideration the question, just what constitutes a mental disorder? Culture-bound syndromes often involve bizarre behavior that in the West might defy categorization. It is important to take into account an individual’s ethnic and cultural context in evaluating whether a mental disorder really exists. Deviant behavior in one cultural setting might be acceptable, even praiseworthy, in another. For example, for Native Americans it is normal to hear voices when alone, whereas this could be diagnosed as schizophrenia by conventional psychiatrists. A widespread culture-bound syndrome is running amok, also known as longlong, whereby the individual will become very agitated and run about, stealing things, trampling crops, chasing people and demanding things to be given to him. In Papua New Guinea longlong is regarded as an institutionalized means for reduction of tension, a temporary escape from unbearable situations. Another culturebound syndrome, lulu, is characterized by a generalized shaking of the body, distorted mental perceptions and bizarre behavior. Arctic hysteria is similar to running amok, and is found mainly among the Inuits of North America; it involves screaming, tearing off clothing and running naked into the snow. Bebainan is a type of anxiety or hysteria characterized by feelings of confusion, dizziness, trembling, blurring of vision, a cold sensation spreading through the body, a vacant feeling, and a loss of desire or will. Hwa-Byung seems localized among Koreans and Korean-Americans and is similar in symptoms to bebainan, but may also include physical symptoms such as there heart palpitations, headaches, chronic indigestion, poor appetite, and vomiting of blood. Taijin-kyofu-sho, common in Japan where saving face is so important, is a kind of phobia in which people are fearful of offending others in social situations through awkward behavior, imperfect body features, or imagined shortcomings. Koro is prevalent in Asia and India and involves intense anxiety, for men, that the penis will recede into the body and possibly cause death, and for women that the vulva and the nipples will recede. Susto or “soul loss” is a highly prevalent among Mexicans and Latin Americans, and is a kind of nervous breakdown, perhaps triggered by a frightening or traumatic event. The soul is said to literally be expelled from one’s body, and one might immediately start to feel “ill from fright.” A related syndrome is ataques de nervos, accompanied by weakness dizziness and disorientation. Similarly, saldero involves anxiety, depression, crying, poor concentration, insomnia, etc. Latah, confined mainly to Malaysia, involves lewd, disorganized outburst in public. Piot, a syndrome unique to Papua New Guinea, usually affects an entire family and occurs when a guest arrives or leaves the home; symptoms include headaches and an unusual lassitude. Windigo psychosis, among the Northern Algonkian Indians, was a compulsion to commit cannibalism, despite norms against it, and despite the individual’s personal sense of repugnance in the act. Pica and geophagia are found in diverse cultures, and involves a compulsion to eat unsuitable or unusual things, such as wood, clay, stones, ashes, hair, plaster or laundry starch.

Outbreaks of mass hysteria are not uncommon in primitive and modern cultures alike. A group of people will exhibit bizarre behavior, including seizures, tremors, running amok, comatose-like trance or possession states, or other sudden hysterical symptoms with no identifiable medical cause. Western psychiatrists call this Mass Psychogenic Illness. Mass hysteria usually starts with a single individual, and this quickly spreads to others, particularly in close settings such as schools, nunneries, or factories, particularly if individuals are subject to intense anxiety of stress. Sometimes these states are voluntarily elicited in religious or healing ceremonies, with incessant drumming, excitement and suggestibility as one person after another falls into a trance or possession state. Sometimes the outbreak will pertain to a collective fear that is entirely false, for example a collective delusion that there is a poisonous gas in the air-and many people will fall victim to symptoms of toxic poisoning despite the fact that there is nothing in the air. A mass dancing mania emerged following the Black Plague epidemic of the 14th century. People would hop, dance, clap hands and jump about in a frenzy, often naked. How hysteria spreads from the initial case to a group is deeply mysterious. Perhaps hysteria can be contagious much in the same way as a violent mood can spread in a mob and lead to a riot, or there is some sort of decoupling of an individual’s personality in the context of group dynamics.

Folk cultures are self-sufficient, interdependent groups that are homogenous in race and custom, retaining traditional customs and getting along with simple technology. There is usually a strong attraction to things of the earth and strong bonds to lands, employing obsolete means of production. These cultures endorse traditional healing practices (“folk medicine”), often in addition to shamans, medicine-men or modern medicine. Modern physicians often label some of their practices as superstitious or bogus. Folk healers abound in urban centers with significant population of immigrants who are attuned to folk medicine. Like shamans, folk healers usually attribute illness to “personalistic,” or unnatural causes-such as a spell or a spirit of an ancestor causing the illness. People seek folk healers for culture-bound syndromes such as running amok, lulu, susto, or for the evil eye. Also, folk healers are sought for non-somatic concerns, such as for fortune-telling, advice or help in ending bad luck, in bringing back an errant spouse, etc. Curanderos are popular folk healers among Mexican and Latin American people, and they incorporate Catholic religious symbols in addition to herbal concoctions, wild plants, bone-manipulation, “energy techniques,” massage and practical advice. In Mexico a great number of folk practitioners are known as spiritists. They go into a trance-possession state, much as shamans do, and employ ritual cleansing, purgatives, massages, baths, spiritual surgeries, religious ritual, as well as pharmaceuticals. In many instances the patient has an evil spirit that requires extraction. Catholic folk healers, called rezadeiras, use prayers, rituals, advice, charms, herbs and pharmaceuticals to treat common ailments as well as complaints of the evil eye. In Guatemala the people invoke a Mayan figure known as San Simon-a trickster spirit of many talents. He is the patron saint of businessmen as well as healer of illnesses, and no task is beyond his potential assistance. A popular folk hero known as Jesus Malverde is a powerful influence on people in Mexico as well as immigrants in the United States. Rootwork, an African-American form of voodoo, constitutes a significant part of the world view of many people in the Southern United States and in Mexico. Root doctors combine a belief in the magical causation of illness (usually thought to be hexes) with cures by sorcery. Native Americans often participate in some form of traditional healing-whether attending a Sun Dance ceremony, consulting with a shaman, or participating in singing rites, purification rites, or the use of herbal remedies and medicine wheels. In the Philippines “psychic surgery” has become a very popular and “miraculous” folk healing. The claim is that these healers open up the patient’s body with bare hands and “remove” organic material such as palm leaves, seeds, hair or even blood, tumors and diseased tissue.

Women are treated in diverse ways across cultures, and diverse attitudes about such things as promiscuity, adultery, and rape. The low status of women is somewhat pervasive, but in many cultures women enjoy a high status. For example, In Borneo, medicine women are highly regarded so that male shamans deliberately assume female habits and costumes, and are treated like women and do women’s work. There are many avoidance taboos associated with women-from the avoidance of menstruating women, to the avoidance of sexual contact with women during pregnancy or prior to certain rituals or expeditions. Sexually promiscuous unmarried women are known in Normanby Island of Papua. In contrast, modesty in women’s behavior is emphasized in many Muslim cultures in which the lust of women is thought to be greater than men. Among French-Moslem people who live in Southern Algeria, the men, not women, wear veils. In many cultures such as the Nivkh, it was fairly common for men to engage in seduction and rape. In some cultures it was customary for brothers to share their wives. For centuries in India and among Native Americans Suttee was customaryimmolation of widows on the funeral pyre of their husbands. The custom of the levirate prevails in many cultures today, requiring a widow to marry one of her deceased husband’s brothers. Today, honor killings are a cultural practice, mainly in the Middle East but also a worldwide phenomenon, in which family members will attack a female relative-by stoning, stabbing, beating or shooting, in order to kill her for bringing dishonor to her family or clan. A related aspect of honor killings pertains to the common practice for women or girls who are rape victims to be killed by relatives.

There is great diversity among cultures in the way children are reared and treated as they grow up. In many cultures there is a strict taboo prohibiting any contact or communication between brother and sister, so as to avoid incest. In some cultures mothers tend to hold their children away from them, avoid eye contact, and generally minimize emotional responses of their infants. In other cultures people avoid punishing children for fear that their sensitive little souls may leave them and they will die, whereas in some cultures even young children are severely punished if they cry too much. It is not uncommon for parents to arrange marriages while their children are still very young. Among the Druze people, it is believed that the soul of the deceased reincarnates into a newborn baby almost immediately. Among the Beng people, infants are thought to be capable of understanding all languages spoken to them. Until recent times, in primitive cultures it was the custom to sacrifice the first-born child of a family. This seems to have been a kind of sympathetic magic in which the parents offered their firstborn in exchange for favors bestowed by the gods. Among the Berawan people it is the custom for parents to give up their babies for adoption if certain bad omens occur during the mother’s pregnancy. The custom of couvade still exists in many parts of the world, whereby the father of a newborn child must lie in bed for at least a month, with the child by his side, while the mother carries on her usual activities.

Cargo cults are a phenomenon that has been noted in many cultures and is associated with charismatic leaders who seek to lead people into a millennialist-type movement. Cargo cults seemed to have started in the 1930s, when the people of Papua New Guinea and other parts of Oceania reacted with wonderment and fear to European colonists, their airplanes their weapons and their seeming wealth. People who join the cargo cult have the expectation that cargo will magically be delivered to each of the participants via plane or boat. In their shared disdain of Europeans, people enjoyed a new unity as a result of cult membership. People enjoyed an increase in self-respect, a strengthening of community cohesion, a sense of purpose or mission. The cargo never materializes, the charismatic leader is discredited, and inevitably the cult dissolves and people get back to their former way of life. In modern cultures a counterpart to cargo cults occurs when people rally behind charismatic leaders who emerge at a time of crisis when there is a mood for a new beginning, and who make an emotional appeal into the people’s yearnings. These leaders may become dictators, and after promises fail to get fulfilled, popular support dissipates, and the charismatic leaders get ousted.

Nomadic people lack a home base, except for temporary encampments, and have the tendency to roam at will. They display resourcefulness and the ability to quickly adapt to new circumstances. They are tremendously sensitive to the environment around them, and have the ability to get on with very little. The Bateks of Malaysia call themselves “forest people,” living in the forests, gauging their movements according to huntinggathering needs. They believe that if no one lived in the forest, the world would come to an end. They subsist on plants, animals (including fish and monkeys), wild tubers, yams, fruit and honey. They sell or trade honey, rattan and other forest products to Malay traders. They hunt monkeys and other small game with bamboo blowpipes with darts tipped with a poison made from sap. The Bateks are reluctant to uproot themselves into government settlements or otherwise integrate into modern society. Still, some Bateks now live in permanent settlements where they plant crops, while spending part of the year foraging for food and collecting rattan and other forest produce for trade.

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