Metabolites of Medicinal Plants: Insightful Approaches

Despite millions of deaths every year, cancer has caused huge economic and non-economic costs for every nation in the world. Economic costs are higher in developed countries, while non-economic costs such as loss of jobs, family care time, and out-of-pocket expenses are higher in developing countries. These huge economic burdens on cancer patients and the increasing cost of chemotherapy led to the usage of plant-based medicines. Such medicines are more cost-effective because of their medicinal and treatment effectiveness. Most medicinal plants have anticancer ingredients that make them more sought-after. The demand for anticancer plants is increasing day by day. The main factors that shape the demand for anticancer plants are lower-priced plant-based anticancer plants, higher prices of chemotherapy, an increasing world population, particularly the ageing population, and increasing per capita GDP (income) of nations. The present chapter provides an overview of the economic burden of cancer, the demand and supply of medicinal and anticancer plants, herbal medicines as complementary medicine for cancer therapy, and the recent progress of anticancer plants.

Withania coagulans has long been used as a health-beneficial medicinal herb in the Ayurveda system of Indian traditional medicine. It is a rich source of steroidal lactone-type compounds known as withanolides. Among the various withanolides, withaferin A, withacoagin, and coagulin A-R are the key compounds that have been isolated from various parts of this medicinal plant for their pharmacological uses. Traditionally, the consumption of whole plants is strongly associated with diabetes. As per the literature survey, the ethanol or aqueous extracts of fruits have been used for their antidiabetic, free radical scavenging, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antifungal, cardiovascular protection, immunomodulatory, and hepatoprotective effects as well as anti-Alzheimer activities. Therefore, the aim of this chapter is to highlight the chemical structures of isolated withanolides (1-33) and their diverse pharmacological properties exhibited by different plant parts in the prevention and treatment of human diseases.

Tinospora cordifolia (TC), a renowned medicinal herb, is widely employed in Ayurveda and other folk medicines under the name “Giloy” in India and neighboring countries for curing diverse human ailments. It encompasses a vast array of bioactive compounds, such as alkaloids, diterpenoids, and steroids. Conventionally, TC is utilized for boosting memory, regulation of the immune system, as well as enhancing mental clarity. The paste of its stem is ingested to treat fever, while the entire plant is utilized for treating jaundice and chronic diarrhea. Furthermore, the extracts of TC have been extensively used in the treatment of various diseases due to their antiinflammatory, anti-spasmodic, anti-microbial, anti-osteoporotic, anti-asthmatic, antiallergic, and antidiabetic activities. Therefore, the intention of this chapter is to accentuate the bioactive components of TC and their pharmacological properties of TC.

Butea monosperma, also known as the 'Flame of the forest' or 'Palas' in Hindi, belongs to the important medicinal plant family “Fabaceae.” Its endemic presence in Southeast Asia and India has made it a valuable natural resource. This plant has a variety of medicinal applications, such as being an aphrodisiac, antiinflammatory, anthelmintic, antimicrobial, and many more. The presence of flavonoids, triterpenes, steroids, chalcones, and fatty acids in different parts of B. monosperma, including the stem, root, leaves, and flowers, makes it a versatile ingredient in various therapeutic exercises. The stem is the source of (-)-medicarpin, an isoflavone that imparts anti-fungal properties to the plant. Two flavanone compounds, namely butrin and butein (flavanones), have been extracted from B. monosperma flowers and are used as contraceptives. Butein, in particular, exhibits anti-tumor activity that opens doors to curing ovarian cancer. Additionally, butein is an excellent free radical scavenger. The seed oil of this plant can also be used for its bactericidal and fungicidal properties.

Ocimum sanctum has been widely used in many forms of home remedies since the Middle Ages to combat many human diseases. In Indian mythology, it has great significance as a holy or spiritual herb and is recommended in the Ayurvedic system of medicine as a first aid to maintain the health of the heart, eye, liver, and mouth, as well as to cure respiratory, digestive, and skin diseases. It is also used to prevent kidney stones, relieve headaches, fight acne, and reduce fever. Experimental studies have identified it as a highly promising anti-ageing, immunomodulatory, cytoprotective, and anticancer agents. Phytochemical studies have revealed the occurrence of numerous bioactive constituents, such as rosmarinic acid, ursolic acid, oleanolic acid, eugenol, carvacrol, linalool, and β-caryophyllene. Several of these compounds have been used in foods, perfumes, dental or oral items, and other products for many decades. It provides the best nutritional supplements as it has a good amount of vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. The present chapter evaluates the phytochemical screening, pharmacological significance, and nutritional values of different parts of O. sanctum, suggesting it may be a ready source of many therapeutic agents and nutritional elements of biological importance to combat human ailments.

Psoralea corylifolia L. (Leguminosae) is a well-known vital medicinal plant and has been used for treating a variety of diseases since ancient times. It is abundantly available in nature and plays an imperative role in Ayurvedic and Chinese medicines. Studies on the ethnobotanical, ethnopharmacological, clinical, phytochemical, as well as side effects of P. corylifolia were found in a variety of scholarly published databases. These plant species have been thoroughly examined both in vivo and in vitro approaches for diverse phytochemical and biological studies. It is used locally for inflammation, alopecia, leukoderma, eczema, leprosy, and psoriasis and possesses cardiotonic, antibacterial, vasodilator, pigment or cytotoxic, antitumor, and antihelminthic activities. Approximately more than a hundred bioactive chemicals have been isolated from fruits and seeds so far, with the most important ones belonging to the coumarins, flavonoids, and meroterpenes families. This chapter thoroughly summarises the information on P. corylifolia's chemical ingredients and biological activities, providing valuable information for future research and developments on this powerful therapeutic plant.

Swertia chirayita (Family; Gentianaceae) is a well-known medicinal plant from the temperate Himalayas and is used in traditional medicine to treat a number of illnesses, including liver issues, malaria, and diabetes. The medicinal use of S. chirayita is extensively documented in the Indian Pharmacy Codex, the British and American Pharmacopoeias, as well as in a number of traditional medical systems, including Ayurveda, Unani, and Siddha. This plant's primary distinguishing feature is its bitter flavor, which arises from the presence of several bioactive compounds that may offer health benefits to people. Growing demand for this important medicinal plant on a national and international scale has prompted unethical wild harvesting and adulteration of the supply. Consequently, there has been a sharp decline in the plant's population, putting it at risk of extinction. Therefore, the objective of this chapter is to give a summary of recent discoveries in the areas of morphology and distribution, traditional usages, biotechnology, phytochemistry, pharmacological effects, and safety evaluations of S. chirayita.

Globally, metabolic syndrome has increased a lot and affecting people of the productive age group. The fruits of Emblica officinalis or Phyllanthus emblica colloquially known as Amla or Indian gooseberry and their active components have been investigated and observed to be beneficial. Amla possesses beneficial effects against metabolic syndrome in both preclinical, and clinical studies. Amla decreases the components of metabolic syndrome like blood pressure, glucose levels, obesity, and cholesterol levels. Moreover, hepatic triacylglycerol, total cholesterol, and oxidative stress were also attenuated by amla treatment. Amla was found to augment adiponectin levels in adipocytes and hepatic PPAR-α levels as well as decline hepatic regulatory element-binding protein (SREBP-1c) expression caused by high-fat diet in rats. Amla possesses gallic acid, ellagic acid, and polyphenol, which are also beneficial. Amla possesses anti-inflammatory properties by downregulating the expression of pERK, TNF-α, pP38, IL6, COX2, and NOX-4 in metabolic syndrome. Furthermore, amla acts through liver X receptor (LXR), farnesoid X receptor (FXR), PPARγ, cEBPα, FABP4 cyclo-oxygenase-2, SREBP-1c, and NF-κB to improve the components of metabolic syndrome. This chapter analyses the encouraging properties of Amla fruit, and its phytoconstituents in metabolic syndrome.

Medicinal plants offer significant therapeutic potential due to the presence of bioactive phytochemicals. This renders them promising candidates for the treatment of a wide range of ailments. Diabetes, a severe metabolic disorder, is conventionally managed using commercial pharmaceutical drugs. Nevertheless, these prescription medications are both economical and linked to various adverse effects. The increasing popularity of herbal remedies is attributed to their cost-effectiveness and their capacity to deliver enhanced therapeutic benefits with fewer associated side effects. This chapter is dedicated to the exploration of well-known medicinal plants, including Trigonella, Syzium, Punica, Momordica, and Gymnema species, for their efficacy in addressing issues related to diabetes. The principal goal of this chapter is to offer an in-depth examination of the chemical compositions and preclinical assessments that substantiate their anti-diabetic properties.

India possesses a diverse array of medicinal plants, some of which have been recorded in different places. Their presence is largely influenced by climate and soil conditions, which are indicative of plant biodiversity. In the recent past, there has been an emphasis on ethnopharmacological research, which focuses on correlating plant utilization for medicinal uses with indigenous communities. The attempts aim to bridge the knowledge gap crucial for future drug development. This chapter overviews the chemistry and pharmacological activities of fruiting plants like Ziziphus mauritiana, Ixora coccinea, Syzygium jambos, Averrhoa bilimbi, Averrhoa carambola, Carissa carandas, Neolamarckia cadamba, Annona reticulata, Grewia asiatica, Feronia limonia, Syzygium samarangense, and Artocarpus lakoocha. 

Infection with Helicobacter pylori poses a threat to public health in numerous regions of the world. This bacterium has been linked to a wide range of stomach disorders, some of which are benign, such as superficial gastritis, while others are rather serious, including chronic atrophic gastritis, stomach cancer, and peptic (gastric or duodenal) ulcers. These conditions can vary in severity and cause significant morbidity in the affected individual. The International Agency for Research on Cancer designated it as a 'Group I carcinogen' in the year 1994 after concluding that it played a significant role in the development of stomach cancer. As a result, there has been a considerable focus on discovering ways to prevent H. pylori infections. In this article, we discuss the role that H. pylori plays in human gastric disease, with a particular focus on the impact of dietary agents on preventing infection and on the pathogenesis of H. pylori.

Herbal medicines have been used since antiquity to treat diseases and have proven to be feasible alternatives. Numerous therapeutic plant species depend on a supply of active ingredients to function effectively. Since they cannot cross the lipid membrane, have an excessively large molecular size, or are least absorbed, most plant extracts containing biologically active components such as tannins, flavonoids, and terpenes have a lower absorption rate and are therefore less effective and bioavailable. Additionally, because of these restrictions, certain extracts are not used. It has been proposed that incorporating plant extract with nanoparticles enhances the solubility and bioavailability of herbal medicines, allowing for increased uptake. Moreover, using nanosystems, the active component may be delivered to the intended site of action over the course of the treatment period at an appropriate concentration. Conventional therapies do not satisfy them. This chapter discusses herbal medicine's medication delivery method based on nanotechnology and its future prospects.

Plants possess a remarkable skill in the generation of secondary metabolites, which are commonly referred to as phytochemicals. These bioactive molecules are non-nutritive and essential for the growth and expansion of plants. However, these phytochemicals play a critical role in plant resistance against both biotic and abiotic stress. Furthermore, they possess a vast array of pharmaceutical and nutraceutical properties, making them commercially and economically significant. Unfortunately, the synthesis of these compounds is not abundant and can be challenging to extract through a cumbersome chemically synthetic process that is both inefficient and expensive. Fortunately, second-generation CRISPR/Cas technology has proven to be a gateway to enhancing the production of phytochemicals due to its simplicity, efficiency, and target specificity. Therefore, the purpose of this chapter is to discuss the mechanistic role of CRISPR/Cas9, its application in base editing, and its ability to enhance the production of phytochemicals.

Genetic association studies and quantitative trait loci (QTL) analysis serve as indispensable tools for identifying genes and genomic regions associated with various traits. The rapid development of genomics and its application in plant breeding has profoundly impacted the field, fostering discoveries and revolutionizing breeding strategies. For a better understanding of plant physiology, complete information on biochemical pathways is imperative across different organizational levels, encompassing simple to intricate networks that regulate trait expression. Over the past decades, the emergence of metabolomics as a vital branch of “omics” has played a pivotal role in determining and quantifying metabolites governing cellular processes. The combination of metabolomics and post-genomic approaches has recently allowed proficient examination of genetic and phenotypic associations in cultivated crops. A novel and powerful methodology, Metabolomic Quantitative Trait Locus (mQTL) mapping, has emerged as an approach to unravel the genetic components and loci contributing to the variability in metabolic profiles. This chapter provides an in-depth exploration of mQTL mapping in both medicinal and crop plants, elucidating its significance in unraveling the intricate interplay between genetics and metabolic pathways.

Plants produce diverse chemical compounds that play a crucial role not only in plant growth and development but also hold great economic and ecological importance for mankind. Plants synthesize these compounds to cope with various abiotic and biotic stresses and also in response to the incessantly changing surrounding environment. Broadly, these compounds are categorized as primary and secondary metabolites. While the former play direct roles in plant growth, development, functioning, defense, and stress tolerance, the latter do not hold any direct importance in the growth and development of plants. Primary metabolites include carbohydrates, organic acids, flavonoids, vitamins, amino acids, glucosinolates, hormones, and phenolics. These are also widely used by humans as dietary compounds. Secondary metabolites, on the other hand, can be broadly sub-divided into four major groups, i.e., terpenoids, phenols, alkaloids, and sulphur-containing compounds. These compounds perform various other physiological roles like protecting plants against microbes and herbivory, insect repellents, allelopathic agents, attractants for pollinators and seed dispersal agents, regulating symbiosis, providing structural support to plants, and alleviating biotic stresses. Additionally, they are also extensively used in cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries, as well as the production of fragrances, drugs, dietary supplements, dyes, and flavours. Although, a myriad of these metabolites are synthesized by plants, and are basically derived by modifying the basic chemical structure of compounds already present in plants. This chapter, therefore, elucidates the biosynthetic pathways of some of the major plant metabolites, giving special attention to the key enzymes involved.