Nanomaterials and Their Interactive Behavior with Biomolecules, Cells and Tissues

Nanoscience and nanotechnology help manipulate or maneuver atoms and molecules to enable them to function at the nanoscale. Nanoscaled materials are the products of nanotechnology, and these are synthesized or fabricated based on specific guidelines. Nanomaterials can interact with most of the biomolecules, cell organelles, and cells, and can move across most of the biological barriers. These materials can readily be functionalized and modified as per the required targets. The modified nanomaterials become convenient tools in several fields of biotechnology, enzyme technology, tissue engineering, etc. In these fields, modified nanomaterials act as a vehicle for biomolecules, imaging agents, sensors, probes as diagnostic tools, devices, etc. The matters in the bulk form and at the nanoscale level show variable physicochemical properties, thereby, showing multifaceted abilities. These features are responsible for their variety of applications in day to day life as well as in specialized fields.

Nanomaterials exhibit some extraordinary features. These features are the bases for their applications in different fields such as biomedical, pharmaceuticals, communication, warfare, clothing, sports industries, automobiles, etc. Reports reflect on their interactions with abiotic and biotic components of the environment. It is very imperative to understand their interactions with biomolecules or related materials. These investigations elaborate on their benefits and, damaging effects; these ascertain their appropriate applications. The concerned reactants may be natural, organic, or inorganic. Nanomaterials interact with components of an environment in a medium like air or water, on the bases of their specific structure and functional groups. During such interactions, the physiological and ecological parameters of the environment also play a significant role. The physicochemical properties of nanomaterials and surface functionalities are due to the specific modifications of the nanomaterials. The hydrophobicity or hydrophilicity of nanomaterials influences their interactions between them and the biological and ecological systems. This chapter deals with the behavior of nanomaterials, parameters, and conditions related to their interaction in a biosystem.

Biocompatibility, biodistribution, and bioavailability are essential aspects of those nanomaterials that are used in the field of biological, biomedical, and biotechnological sciences. These are applicable like agents for the drug delivery system, biomolecules, biomedical applicants, biosensors, theranostics, etc. These aspects are intricately interdependent and play prime roles in successful applications of nanomaterials. The physicochemical features of cell, biosystem, and nanomaterials play a significant part in these processes. The nanomaterials can be modified or functionalized by various techniques or by conjugating with a variety of molecules that have specific functional groups or phase transfer of the nanomaterials. The highest degree of biocompatibility of the nanomaterials is attained by minimizing the cytotoxic, genotoxic, and other derogative impacts of nanomaterials with respect to the physiology of a biosystem. Bionanomaterials should be hemocompatible, histocompatible, and cytocompatible for their successful performance. Nanomaterials are functionalized or modified suitably to achieve the selected performances. This aspect needs to alter the physicochemical properties, the surface topography of the nanomaterials that permit the smooth functioning of fabricated nanomaterials. In this chapter, the biocompatibility of nanomaterials, strategies involved, probable pathways along with some examples have been reviewed. This will provide an overview of these significant aspects related to the interaction between nanomaterials and the biosystem.

Nanomaterials have occupied ubiquitous status in present-day life. Nanotechnology has become the backbone for technical aspects of energy-storing, communication industries, domestic, health, and safety, etc. Interactions and behavior of nanomaterials are the primary concern among the related research fraternity. The main focus is on the mechanisms involved in the interactions and the responses of nanomaterials concerning abiotic and biotic components of the environment during the pertinent research. The interactions and behavior of nanomaterials follow the basic principles of physics, chemistry, material science, biological sciences, etc. Nanomaterials abridge the atomic and molecular state of the matter and the respective bulk forms. In such interactions, the quantum mechanics and tunneling effect, parameters like, inter and intramolecular binding forces, hydrophobicity, and hydrophilicity, net charges, etc., have functional significance. Nanomaterials exhibit the ability to get precisely designed as per the assigned functions. As a result, such nanomaterials act as preferred options in different fields like vehicles for cargo and diagnostic tools, etc. In this chapter, the functional roles of the physicochemical parameters and related forces are reviewed regarding the behavior of nanomaterials in the biosystem.

Biosystems are responsive to almost all types of stimuli. These stimuli are in the form of fluctuations in their internal and external environments. Abiota, biota, and nanomaterials are interactive components of the environment. These units exhibit a wide range of reactivity because of their respective physicochemical, biomolecular, biochemical, and biophysical features. Biosystem is a complex unit of biota and these are acellular, cellular, unicellular and multicellular structurally and functionally in nature. Cell being the structural and functional unit of the biosystem, is a wellorganized structure exhibiting wide variety, nature, and functions that bring about the sustenance of the biosystem. Nanomaterials are some of the most desired novel materials to be used as agents to carry drugs, as a component of biomedical aids, diagnostic tools, biomedical imaging, etc. Inter-actions between nanomaterials and the biosystem are very ubiquitous and at the same time ambiguous. Most of the physicochemical properties of nanomaterials play significant roles and cause impacts on interacting materials. These materials are inorganic, organic, or living. Cellular uptake of nanoparticles is a common phenomenon and has a wide range of applications in the field of nanomedicine from cell tracking, cellular to molecular imaging, disease targeting, drug/gene delivery, diagnosis, and therapy. Nanoparticle-based diagnostic or therapeutic applications are mainly attributed to the various methods of functionalization and localization in the cellular and subcellular compartments. The pre-requisite for the nanoparticle-based therapeutic applications mainly involves the mechanisms of the uptake of the nanoparticles which also determines the fate of these nanoparticles for effective efficacy. Applications of nanomaterials are dependent on the regulated interaction between biota and abiota of the environment. The wide range of functionality of nanoparticles is because of their physicochemical properties, ability to get modified or formulated readily, as per the need, and the greatest flexibility among the adaptability of biota. The potential use of nanomaterials may be the cause of their derogative impacts on abiota and biota. It is one of the prime concerns during development, formulation, and applications in varied fields to provide insight into the interactions between nanomaterials and the biosystem. One must understand the intricacies of their interactions within biosystems.

Proteins are among the significant biomolecular constituents in a biosystem. The structure of proteins and the nanomaterials, intracellular interactions, type of the cell, cell organelles, cell signaling and sensation, etc., affect the interactions between proteins and the nanomaterials. The interface formed between proteins and nanomaterials is the original site of contact and the interplay. The behavior of the interacting components reflects on the regulatory aspects, assembly of biomolecules, and various applications in the normal functioning of a biosystem. The fundamentals related to the tendency of biomolecules and nanomaterials help to retain their stable physicochemical conformations. The interactions involving proteins and nanomaterials bring changes in both. It is essential and beneficial to understand the mechanism of these interactions and their impacts on each other. This chapter deals with the nature, structure, and behavior of protein in general and nanomaterials, their stability, the significance of zeta potential, opsonins and their role, protein corona, and the factors influencing their dynamics.

Genetic material is a stable biomolecule in an organism. The intact and integrated transfer of genetic information from the parental generation to the offspring (daughter cells) is essential. This transfer acts as a basis and ensures the conveyance of somatic and sex-linked traits from generation to generation. The DNA contains genetic information and is present in eukaryotes and prokaryotes, while viruses have genetic information either in DNA or RNA. The genetic information plays a prime role in maintaining structural, physiological originality and modifications by retaining the specific pattern of transcription, translation, and replication of genetic material during cell proliferation, cell cycle, cell differentiation, etc. Cellular behavior reflects on the structural, functional, and genetic health of a cell, tissues, and an organism. The formulations of nanomaterials are in concern with the targeted moieties. The nanomaterials have spread their tentacles in most of the fields following the functional and procedural aspects of the biological and non-biological sciences. Different types of nanomaterials are produced in order to meet the demands of various domains like biotechnology, biomedical sciences, industrial, material sciences, etc. Nanomaterials cause either beneficial or harmful effects in a biosystem and the environment. The disoriented biochemical, biophysical, and biomolecular impacts are due to the adverse effects of nanomaterials on genetic contents. This condition brings disorganized functionality of the genetic information and the cell. The evaluation of their implications on biomolecules like DNA and RNA is essential to understand the mechanism involved. This chapter deals with the overall biochemical, physiological, and biophysical aspects of genetic contents, along with the impacts of various types of nanomaterials

Enzymes are proteins, but all proteins are not enzymes. Enzyme interactions concern with the biochemical and physiological transformations encompassing most of the life activities. Understanding such events will help to predict particular biochemical, biocatalytic, and enzyme reactions involved. These investigations also help to predict clinical and remedial aspects of dysfunctionalities of physiological processes. Chemical enzymes have their impediments that pose difficulties during their industrial applications. Biological enzymes also referred to as biocatalysts, are chemospecific, and applicable conveniently to carry out varied biological activities. This feature is related to the identification and selection of a particular functional group, among others. This selection is physical or chemical but depends on parameters like the nature of the solvent, atomic orbitals, concentration, pH, temperature, etc. Their industrial and biological applications increase using the enzyme immobilization technique. Nanomaterials have occupied significant status in the present day scenario. These materials are better options for this technique because these materials offer features like high specific surface area, improved dispersibility, low mass transfer resistance, etc. The mechanism of enzyme activity is quite complicated. The necessary steps incriminated are binding of the enzyme with the specific substrate. The complementary shape, size, charge, hydrophobicity, and hydrophilicity, etc., of a substrate, play a significant role in its binding with an enzyme. Nanomaterials are potential components that act as a matrix during the process of enzyme immobilization. These nanostructures elevate the efficacy of biocatalyst, specific surface area, mass transfer resistance, and loading of the capable enzyme, etc. The unique physicochemical features like size, surface properties, ease of modulation of nanomaterials, etc., ensure better performance of enzymes and improve their applications in different fields likes biomedical, pharmaceuticals, biomolecular, food, and packaging technology, agricultural practice, and biochemical investigations in vitro as well as in vivo. Some of the fundamental properties of enzymes can be modified to suit the functionality concerning the set targets. This chapter deals with the structure, nature, and regulatory dynamics of the enzyme. The enzyme immobilization technique, its advantages, and interactions with different nanomaterials along with biomimicking agents are also discussed.

Drug delivery systems, vaccination, and diagnostic imaging are the main aspects that enhance the effectiveness of human health and safety. This system protects an organism against microbes, viruses, parasites, and allergens. The immune system represents the level of the ontogenic and phylogenetic development of a biosystem. The degree of efficiency to protect against infection varies in different organisms. Overall, the functional mechanism of the immune system is complicated. Any molecule, or a pathogen entering the human body or a biosystem, has to face various components of the immune system. It is imperative to understand the concept of the interactions between nanomaterials and the components of the immune system. This understanding will improve, improvise, and elevate the degree of clinical translation of nanomedicine in the field of human health and safety. There seems to be an enormous scope of studies related to the intricacies of interaction occurring at the bio-nano-interface. These efforts will guide to design the rational nanomaterials that are either fabricated or synthesized with specific targets. The study of the modes or the patterns involved during the interactions between nanomaterials and the immune system can maintain the appropriate defense system of the individual against infections, xenobiotics, and any foreign molecule. This chapter deals with the applications of nanomaterials in the delivery system, competence of nanomaterials concerning the immune system, immunomodulation, immunosuppression, immunostimulation, and interactions between various nanomaterials and the components of the immune system.

Advancements in the nanoscience, nanotechnology and material science involve the principles of fundamental physical, chemical, and biological sciences. These scientific advancements have opened a vast horizon for understanding the mechanisms of the physiology of life and the environment. This progress has also provided suitable materials and appropriate methodology concerning the developments. Nanomaterials are the bridge between the atomic and molecular and bulk form of matter. These nanoscaled materials are modified, fabricated, and reach most of the biological targets in life forms. As a result, these become useful materials for applications in medical sciences, industrial processes, health care, and home security. The biological components, such as cells and tissues in the biosystem and nanomaterials, interact amicably with restrictions concerning their physicochemical features. Nanomaterials exhibit biocompatibility and bioavailability within the physiological environment. This ability is the primary basis of their applications in almost every sphere of investigation, diagnosis, and treatment of ailments. Enzyme technology, DNA and RNA technology, tissue engineering, military, and communications, energy, and many industrial processes are the fields where different nanomaterials are useful and provide beneficial and desired results. In this chapter, various potential application based interactions related to medical sciences, biomolecular investigations, biotechnology, genetic engineering, tissue engineering, environmental aspects, military, etc., have been envisaged.