Generic placeholder image

Current Drug Therapy

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 1574-8855
ISSN (Online): 2212-3903

Review Article

Improving Women's Health and Immunity: A Thorough Mapping Micronutrients and Dietary Recommendations

Author(s): Rashmi Saxena Pal*, Yogendra Pal, Motamarri Venkata Naga Lalitha Chaitanya, Neha Sharma, Anjana Rani, Shubham Kumar and Preeti Srivastava

Volume 20, Issue 2, 2025

Published on: 19 February, 2024

Page: [180 - 188] Pages: 9

DOI: 10.2174/0115748855284781240202054050

Price: $65

TIMBC 2025
Abstract

In particular, throughout life, women's health depends on having an ideal micronutrient level. Thus, pregnancy outcomes and the long-term health of a woman's offspring are significantly influenced by her physical and nutritional well-being during the preconception stage. Various nutrients are required in sufficient amounts to fulfill the requirements at the various phases in the life of females. Our analysis of the state of nutrition shows illnesses connected to micronutrient deficiencies, particularly anemia and its related deficiencies. Peer-reviewed publication databases and publicly available data from international and national sources were targeted in a structured literature search to sort out the direct or indirect association between the different micronutrients, their levels, sources and significance in the various stages of life of females. The goal of the current review is to identify any direct or indirect relationships between the numerous micronutrients, their sources, concentrations, and importance at different phases of female development.

Keywords: Micronutrients, women, health, reproduction, nutrition, illness.

Graphical Abstract
[1]
Alpert PT. The role of vitamins and minerals on the immune system. Home Health Care Manage Pract 2017; 29(3): 199-202.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1084822317713300]
[2]
Maggini S, Pierre A, Calder P. Immune function and micronutrient requirements change over the life course. Nutrients 2018; 10(10): 1531.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu10101531] [PMID: 30336639]
[3]
Taghiabadi M, Arab A, Rafie N, Askari G. Beneficial role of calcium in premenstrual syndrome: A systematic review of current literature. Int J Prev Med 2020; 11(1): 156.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/ijpvm.IJPVM_243_19] [PMID: 33312465]
[4]
Teran E, Hernandez I, Nieto B, Tavara R, Ocampo JE, Calle A. Coenzyme Q10 supplementation during pregnancy reduces the risk of pre‐eclampsia. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 2009; 105(1): 43-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgo.2008.11.033] [PMID: 19154996]
[5]
Keats EC, Oh C, Chau T, Khalifa DS, Imdad A, Bhutta ZA. Effects of vitamin and mineral supplementation during pregnancy on maternal, birth, child health and development outcomes in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review. Campbell Syst Rev 2021; 17(2): e1127.
[6]
Rodríguez-Cano AM, Calzada-Mendoza CC, Estrada-Gutierrez G, Mendoza-Ortega JA, Perichart-Perera O. Nutrients, mitochondrial function, and perinatal health. Nutrients 2020; 12(7): 2166.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu12072166] [PMID: 32708345]
[7]
Darnton-Hill I. Public health aspects in the prevention and control of vitamin deficiencies. Curr Dev Nutr 2019; 3(9): nzz075.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cdn/nzz075] [PMID: 31598578]
[8]
Pecora F, Persico F, Argentiero A, Neglia C, Esposito S. The role of micronutrients in support of the immune response against viral infections. Nutrients 2020; 12(10): 3198.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu12103198] [PMID: 33092041]
[9]
Delves PJ, Roitt IM. The immune system. First of two parts. N Engl J Med 2000; 343(1): 37-49.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM200007063430107] [PMID: 10882768]
[10]
Abu-Ouf NM, Jan MM. The impact of maternal iron deficiency and iron deficiency anemia on child’s health. Saudi Med J 2015; 36(2): 146-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.15537/smj.2015.2.10289] [PMID: 25719576]
[11]
Georgieff MK. Iron deficiency in pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2020; 223(4): 516-24.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2020.03.006] [PMID: 32184147]
[12]
Fisher AL, Nemeth E. Iron homeostasis during pregnancy. Am J Clin Nutr 2017; 106: 1567S-74S.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.117.155812] [PMID: 29070542]
[13]
Hegde N, Rich MW, Gayomali C. The cardiomyopathy of iron deficiency. Tex Heart Inst J 2006; 33(3): 340-4.
[PMID: 17041692]
[14]
Lee GR. Iron deficiency and iron-deficiency anemia. In: Lee GR, Bithell TC, Foerster J, Athens JW, Luken JN, Eds. Wintrobe’s Clinical Haematology. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger 1993; pp. 808-39.
[15]
Nasiadek M, Stragierowicz J, Klimczak M, Kilanowicz A. The role of zinc in selected female reproductive system disorders. Nutrients 2020; 12(8): 2464.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu12082464] [PMID: 32824334]
[16]
Garner TB, Hester JM, Carothers A, Diaz FJ. Role of zinc in female reproduction. Biol Reprod 2021; 104(5): 976-94.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/biolre/ioab023] [PMID: 33598687]
[17]
Livingstone C. Zinc Nutr Clin Pract 2015; 30(3): 371-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0884533615570376] [PMID: 25681484]
[18]
Sandstead HH, Au W. Zinc. In: Norberg GF, Fowler BA, Norberg M, Filberg LT, Eds. Handbook on the Toxicology of Metals. (3rd ed.). Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Academic Press, Elsevier 2007; pp. 925-45.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-012369413-3/50102-6]
[19]
Bilandžić N, Sedak M, Đokić M, et al. Determination of zinc concentrations in foods of animal origin, fish and shellfish from Croatia and assessment of their contribution to dietary intake. J Food Compos Anal 2014; 35(2): 61-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2014.04.006]
[20]
Eaton SB, Konner M. Paleolithic nutrition. N Engl J Med 1985; 312(5): 283-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM198501313120505] [PMID: 2981409]
[21]
Thappa DM, Rajesh NG, Saritha M, Gupta D, Chandrashekar L. Acquired zinc deficiency in an adult female. Indian J Dermatol 2012; 57(6): 492-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/0019-5154.103073] [PMID: 23248371]
[22]
Wessells KR, Brown KH. Estimating the global prevalence of zinc deficiency: Results based on zinc availability in national food supplies and the prevalence of stunting. PLoS One 2012; 7(11): e50568.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0050568] [PMID: 23209782]
[23]
Fiorentini D, Cappadone C, Farruggia G, Prata C. Magnesium: Biochemistry, nutrition, detection, and social impact of diseases linked to its deficiency. Nutrients 2021; 13(4): 1136.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu13041136] [PMID: 33808247]
[24]
Tardy AL, Pouteau E, Marquez D, Yilmaz C, Scholey A. Vitamins and minerals for energy, fatigue and cognition: A narrative review of the biochemical and clinical evidence. Nutrients 2020; 12(1): 228.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu12010228] [PMID: 31963141]
[25]
de Baaij JHF, Hoenderop JGJ, Bindels RJM. Magnesium in man: Implications for health and disease. Physiol Rev 2015; 95(1): 1-46.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00012.2014] [PMID: 25540137]
[26]
Ismail A A A, Ismail Y, Ismail AA. Chronic magnesium deficiency and human disease; time for reappraisal? QJM 2018; 111(11): 759-63.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/qjmed/hcx186] [PMID: 29036357]
[27]
Piuri G, Zocchi M, Della Porta M, et al. Magnesium in obesity, metabolic syndrome, and type 2 diabetes. Nutrients 2021; 13(2): 320.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu13020320] [PMID: 33499378]
[28]
Gröber U, Schmidt J, Kisters K. Magnesium in prevention and therapy. Nutrients 2015; 7(9): 8199-226.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu7095388] [PMID: 26404370]
[29]
Skeaff S. Iodine deficiency in pregnancy: The effect on neurodevelopment in the child. Nutrients 2011; 3(2): 265-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu3020265] [PMID: 22254096]
[30]
Zimmermann MB. Iodine deficiency. Endocr Rev 2009; 30(4): 376-408.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/er.2009-0011] [PMID: 19460960]
[31]
Venturi S, Donati FM, Venturi A, Venturi M, Grossi L, Guidi A. Role of iodine in evolution and carcinogenesis of thyroid, breast and stomach. Adv Clin Path 2000; 4(1): 11-7.
[PMID: 10936894]
[32]
Hu J, Zhang Z, Shen WJ, Azhar S. Cellular cholesterol delivery, intracellular processing and utilization for biosynthesis of steroid hormones. Nutr Metab 2010; 7(1): 47.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1743-7075-7-47] [PMID: 20515451]
[33]
Turcu AF, Auchus RJ. Adrenal steroidogenesis and congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2015; 44(2): 275-96.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecl.2015.02.002] [PMID: 26038201]
[34]
Studer JM, Schweer WP, Gabler NK, Ross JW. Functions of manganese in reproduction. Anim Reprod Sci 2022; 238: 106924.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.anireprosci.2022.106924] [PMID: 35121412]
[35]
Avila DS, Puntel RL, Aschner M. Manganese in health and disease. Met Ions Life Sci 2013; 13: 199-227.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7500-8_7] [PMID: 24470093]
[36]
Aschner M, Guilarte TR, Schneider JS, Zheng W. Manganese: Recent advances in understanding its transport and neurotoxicity. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2007; 221(2): 131-47.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.taap.2007.03.001] [PMID: 17466353]
[37]
Archibald FS, Tyree C. Manganese poisoning and the attack of trivalent manganese upon catecholamines. Arch Biochem Biophys 1987; 256(2): 638-50.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0003-9861(87)90621-7] [PMID: 3039917]
[38]
Greenberg JA, Bell SJ, Guan Y, Yu YH. Folic Acid supplementation and pregnancy: More than just neural tube defect prevention. Rev Obstet Gynecol 2011; 4(2): 52-9.
[PMID: 22102928]
[39]
Pietrzik K, Bailey L, Shane B. Folic acid and L-5-methyltetrahydrofolate: Comparison of clinical pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. Clin Pharmacokinet 2010; 49(8): 535-48.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/11532990-000000000-00000] [PMID: 20608755]
[40]
Lyon P, Strippoli V, Fang B, Cimmino L. B vitamins and one-carbon metabolism: Implications in human health and disease. Nutrients 2020; 12(9): 2867.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu12092867] [PMID: 32961717]
[41]
Kerns JC, Gutierrez JL. Thiamin. Adv Nutr 2017; 8(2): 395-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3945/an.116.013979] [PMID: 28298281]
[42]
Rieder MJ. Prevention of neural tube defects with periconceptional folic acid. Clin Perinatol 1994; 21(3): 483-503.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0095-5108(18)30328-2] [PMID: 7982331]
[43]
Pitkin RM. Folate and neural tube defects. Am J Clin Nutr 2007; 85(1): 285S-8S.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/85.1.285S] [PMID: 17209211]
[44]
Cormick G, Belizán JM. Calcium intake and health. Nutrients 2019; 11(7): 1606.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu11071606] [PMID: 31311164]
[45]
Willemse JPMM, Meertens LJE, Scheepers HCJ, et al. Calcium intake from diet and supplement use during early pregnancy: The Expect study I. Eur J Nutr 2019; 59(1): 1-8.
[PMID: 30661104]
[46]
Hofmeyr GJ, Lawrie TA, Atallah ÁN, Torloni MR. Calcium supplementation during pregnancy for preventing hypertensive disorders and related problems. Cochrane Libr 2018; 2018(10): CD001059.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD001059.pub5] [PMID: 30277579]
[47]
Omotayo MO, Dickin KL, O’Brien KO, Neufeld LM, De Regil LM, Stoltzfus RJ. Calcium supplementation to prevent preeclampsia: Translating guidelines into practice in low-income countries. Adv Nutr 2016; 7(2): 275-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3945/an.115.010736] [PMID: 26980810]
[48]
Jarjou LMA, Sawo Y, Goldberg GR, Laskey MA, Cole TJ, Prentice A. Unexpected long-term effects of calcium supplementation in pregnancy on maternal bone outcomes in women with a low calcium intake: A follow-up study. Am J Clin Nutr 2013; 98(3): 723-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.113.061630] [PMID: 23902782]
[49]
Lönnerdal B. Calcium and iron absorption--mechanisms and public health relevance. Int J Vitam Nutr Res 2010; 80(45): 293-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1024/0300-9831/a000036] [PMID: 21462112]
[50]
Chambial S, Dwivedi S, Shukla KK, John PJ, Sharma P. Vitamin C in disease prevention and cure: An overview. Indian J Clin Biochem 2013; 28(4): 314-28.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12291-013-0375-3] [PMID: 24426232]
[51]
Li Y, Schellhorn HE. New developments and novel therapeutic perspectives for vitamin C. J Nutr 2007; 137(10): 2171-84.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jn/137.10.2171] [PMID: 17884994]
[52]
Talarico V, Aloe M, Barreca M, Galati MC, Raiola G. Do you remember scurvy? Clin Ther 2014; 165(5): 253-6.
[PMID: 25366945]
[53]
Lobo V, Patil A, Phatak A, Chandra N. Free radicals, antioxidants and functional foods: Impact on human health. Pharmacogn Rev 2010; 4(8): 118-26.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/0973-7847.70902] [PMID: 22228951]
[54]
Aruoma OI. Nutrition and health aspects of free radicals and antioxidants. Food Chem Toxicol 1994; 32(7): 671-83.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0278-6915(94)90011-6] [PMID: 8045480]
[55]
Young IS, Woodside JV. Antioxidants in health and disease. J Clin Pathol 2001; 54(3): 176-86.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jcp.54.3.176] [PMID: 11253127]
[56]
Rizvi S, Raza ST, Ahmed F, Ahmad A, Abbas S, Mahdi F. The role of vitamin E in human health and some diseases. Sultan Qaboos Univ Med J 2014; 14(2): e157-65.
[PMID: 24790736]
[57]
Drotleff AM, Ternes W. Determination of RS,E/Z-tocotrienols by HPLC. J Chromatogr A 2001; 909(2): 215-23.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9673(00)01110-9] [PMID: 11269521]
[58]
Niki E, Traber MG. A history of vitamin E. Ann Nutr Metab 2012; 61(3): 207-12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000343106] [PMID: 23183290]
[59]
Burton GW, Joyce A, Ingold KU. Is vitamin E the only lipid-soluble, chain-breaking antioxidant in human blood plasma and erythrocyte membranes? Arch Biochem Biophys 1983; 221(1): 281-90.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0003-9861(83)90145-5] [PMID: 6830261]
[60]
Brigelius-Flohé R, Traber MG, Vitamin E, Vitamin E. Function and metabolism. FASEB J 1999; 13(10): 1145-55.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1096/fasebj.13.10.1145] [PMID: 10385606]
[61]
Liao S, Omage SO, Börmel L, et al. Vitamin E and metabolic health: Relevance of interactions with other micronutrients. Antioxidants 2022; 11(9): 1785.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/antiox11091785] [PMID: 36139859]
[62]
Galli F, Bonomini M, Bartolini D, et al. Vitamin E (Alpha-Tocopherol) metabolism and nutrition in chronic kidney disease. Antioxidants 2022; 11(5): 989.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/antiox11050989] [PMID: 35624853]
[63]
Fidaleo M, Tacconi S, Sbarigia C, et al. Current nanocarrier strategies improve vitamin B12 pharmacokinetics, ameliorate patients’ lives, and reduce costs. Nanomaterials 2021; 11(3): 743.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nano11030743] [PMID: 33809596]
[64]
Watanabe F, Bito T. Vitamin B 12 sources and microbial interaction. Exp Biol Med 2018; 243(2): 148-58.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1535370217746612] [PMID: 29216732]
[65]
Kräutler B. Biochemistry of B12-cofactors in human metabolism. Subcell Biochem 2012; 56: 323-46.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-2199-9_17]
[66]
Farquharson J, Adams JF. The forms of vitamin B 12 in foods. Br J Nutr 1976; 36(1): 127-36.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1079/BJN19760063] [PMID: 820366]
[67]
Brouwer-Brolsma E, Dhonukshe-Rutten R, van Wijngaarden J, Zwaluw N, Velde N, de Groot L. Dietary sources of vitamin B-12 and their association with vitamin B-12 status markers in healthy older adults in the B-PROOF study. Nutrients 2015; 7(9): 7781-97.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu7095364] [PMID: 26389945]
[68]
Li S, Xu L, Qing J, et al. Multiple biological activities and biosynthesis mechanisms of specific conjugated linoleic acid isomers and analytical methods for prospective application. Food Chem 2023; 409: 135257.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.135257]
[69]
Gangidi RR, Lokesh BR. Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) formation in edible oils by photoisomerization: A review. J Food Sci 2014; 79(5): R781-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.12449] [PMID: 24754783]
[70]
Benjamin S, Spener F. Conjugated linoleic acids as functional food: An insight into their health benefits. Nutr Metab 2009; 6(1): 36.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1743-7075-6-36] [PMID: 19761624]
[71]
Mehaya FM, El-Shazly AI, El-Dein AN, Farid MA. Evaluation of nutritional and physicochemical characteristics of soy yogurt by Lactobacillus plantarum KU985432 and Saccharomyces boulardii CNCMI-745. Sci Rep 2023; 13(1): 13026.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-40207-4]

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
© 2025 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy