Generic placeholder image

Current Pharmaceutical Design

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 1381-6128
ISSN (Online): 1873-4286

Review Article

A Brief Review of Cardiovascular Diseases, Associated Risk Factors and Current Treatment Regimes

Author(s): Gagan D. Flora and Manasa K. Nayak*

Volume 25, Issue 38, 2019

Page: [4063 - 4084] Pages: 22

DOI: 10.2174/1381612825666190925163827

Price: $65

conference banner
Abstract

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the leading cause of premature death and disability in humans and their incidence is on the rise globally. Given their substantial contribution towards the escalating costs of health care, CVDs also generate a high socio-economic burden in the general population. The underlying pathogenesis and progression associated with nearly all CVDs are predominantly of atherosclerotic origin that leads to the development of coronary artery disease, cerebrovascular disease, venous thromboembolism and, peripheral vascular disease, subsequently causing myocardial infarction, cardiac arrhythmias or stroke. The aetiological risk factors leading to the onset of CVDs are well recognized and include hyperlipidaemia, hypertension, diabetes, obesity, smoking and, lack of physical activity. They collectively represent more than 90% of the CVD risks in all epidemiological studies. Despite high fatality rate of CVDs, the identification and careful prevention of the underlying risk factors can significantly reduce the global epidemic of CVDs. Beside making favorable lifestyle modifications, primary regimes for the prevention and treatment of CVDs include lipid-lowering drugs, antihypertensives, antiplatelet and anticoagulation therapies. Despite their effectiveness, significant gaps in the treatment of CVDs remain. In this review, we discuss the epidemiology and pathology of the major CVDs that are prevalent globally. We also determine the contribution of well-recognized risk factors towards the development of CVDs and the prevention strategies. In the end, therapies for the control and treatment of CVDs are discussed.

Keywords: Atherosclerosis, hypertension, thrombosis, stroke, platelets, epidemiological studies.

[1]
Celermajer DS, Chow CK, Marijon E, Anstey NM, Woo KS. Cardiovascular disease in the developing world: prevalences, patterns, and the potential of early disease detection. J Am Coll Cardiol 2012; 60(14): 1207-16.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2012.03.074] [PMID: 22858388]
[2]
Behera SS, Pramanik K, Nayak MK, Pramanik KK, Nayak M. Recent advancement in the treatment of cardiovascular diseases: Conventional therapy to nanotechnology. Curr Pharm Des 2015; 21(30): 4479-97.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1381612821666150817104635] [PMID: 26278923]
[3]
Capewell S, Ford ES, Croft JB, Critchley JA, Greenlund KJ, Labarthe DR. Cardiovascular risk factor trends and potential for reducing coronary heart disease mortality in the United States of America. Bull World Health Organ 2010; 88(2): 120-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2471/BLT.08.057885] [PMID: 20428369]
[4]
Kumar A. Cardiovascular diseases: are we overlooking some cardiovascular disease risk factors/markers? J Biomed Sci 2014; 3.
[5]
Bloom DE, Cafiero E, Jané-Llopis E, et al. The global economic burden of noncommunicable diseases. Program on the Global. Demography of Aging 2012.
[6]
Leal J, Luengo-Fernández R, Gray A, Petersen S, Rayner M. Economic burden of cardiovascular diseases in the enlarged European Union. Eur Heart J 2006; 27(13): 1610-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehi733] [PMID: 16495286]
[7]
Frostegård J. Immunity, atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease. BMC Med 2013; 11: 117-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-11-117] [PMID: 23635324]
[8]
Hobbs FDR. Prevention of cardiovascular diseases. BMC Med 2015; 13: 261-1.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12916-015-0507-0] [PMID: 26456942]
[9]
Kjeldsen SE. Hypertension and cardiovascular risk: general aspects. Pharmacol Res 2018; 129: 95-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.phrs.2017.11.003] [PMID: 29127059]
[10]
Leon BM, Maddox TM. Diabetes and cardiovascular disease: epidemiology, biological mechanisms, treatment recommendations and future research. World J Diabetes 2015; 6(13): 1246-58.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4239/wjd.v6.i13.1246] [PMID: 26468341]
[11]
Miller M. Dyslipidemia and cardiovascular risk: the importance of early prevention. QJM 2009; 102(9): 657-67.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/qjmed/hcp065]
[12]
Hobbs FD. Cardiovascular disease: different strategies for primary and secondary prevention. Heart 2004; 90(10): 1217-23.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/hrt.2003.027680] [PMID: 15367530]
[13]
Karunathilake SP, Ganegoda GU. Secondary prevention of cardiovascular diseases and application of technology for early diagnosis. BioMed Res Int 2018; 20185767864
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2018/5767864]
[14]
Cassar A, Holmes DR Jr, Rihal CS, Gersh BJ. Chronic coronary artery disease: diagnosis and management. Mayo Clin Proc 2009; 84(12): 1130-46.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4065/mcp.2009.0391] [PMID: 19955250]
[15]
Gander J, Sui X, Hazlett LJ, Cai B, Hébert JR, Blair SN. Factors related to coronary heart disease risk among men: validation of the Framingham Risk Score. Prev Chronic Dis 2014; 11: E140-0.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5888/pcd11.140045] [PMID: 25121352]
[16]
Fioranelli M, Bottaccioli AG, Bottaccioli F, Bianchi M, Rovesti M, Roccia MG. stress and inflammation in coronary artery disease: a review psychoneuroendocrineimmunology-based. Front Immunol 2018; 9: 2031-1.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2018.02031] [PMID: 30237802]
[17]
Libby P, Theroux P. Pathophysiology of coronary artery disease. Circulation 2005; 111(25): 3481-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.537878] [PMID: 15983262]
[18]
Ginghina C, Ungureanu C, Vladaia A, Popescu BA, Jurcut R. The electrocardiographic profile of patients with angina pectoris. J Med Life 2009; 2(1): 80-91.
[PMID: 20108496]
[19]
Wee Y, Burns K, Bett N. Medical management of chronic stable angina. Aust Prescr 2015; 38(4): 131-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.18773/austprescr.2015.042] [PMID: 26648642]
[20]
Hajar R. Risk factors for coronary artery disease: historical perspectives. Heart Views 2017; 18(3): 109-14.
[21]
Artham SM, Lavie CJ, Milani RV, Ventura HO. Obesity and hypertension, heart failure, and coronary heart disease-risk factor, paradox, and recommendations for weight loss. Ochsner J 2009; 9(3): 124-32.
[PMID: 21603427]
[22]
Aronson D, Edelman ER. Coronary artery disease and diabetes mellitus. Cardiol Clin 2014; 32(3): 439-55.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ccl.2014.04.001] [PMID: 25091969]
[23]
Rea P. Chapter 6 - Blood Supply of the Brain and Clinical Issues. In: Rea P, Eds, Essential Clinical Anatomy of the Nervous System. Academic Press: San Diego 2015; pp. 99-119.
[24]
Xie X, Atkins E, Lv J, et al. Effects of intensive blood pressure lowering on cardiovascular and renal outcomes: updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet 2016; 387(10017): 435-43.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(15)00805-3] [PMID: 26559744]
[25]
Maier IL, Schregel K, Karch A, et al. Association between embolic stroke patterns, esus etiology, and new diagnosis of atrial fibrillation: a secondary data analysis of the find-af trial. Stroke Res Treat 2017.20171391843
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2017/1391843] [PMID: 28536667]
[26]
Hart RG, Pearce LA, Aguilar MI. Meta-analysis: antithrombotic therapy to prevent stroke in patients who have nonvalvular atrial fibrillation. Ann Intern Med 2007; 146(12): 857-67.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-146-12-200706190-00007] [PMID: 17577005]
[27]
Hankey GJ. Stroke. Lancet 2017; 389(10069): 641-54.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(16)30962-X] [PMID: 27637676]
[28]
Khare S. Risk factors of transient ischemic attack: an overview. J Midlife Health 2016; 7(1): 2-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/0976-7800.179166] [PMID: 27134474]
[29]
Khadilkar SV. Neurology: the scenario in India. J Assoc Physicians India 2012; 60: 42-4.
[PMID: 22715545]
[30]
Grasso G, Alafaci C, Macdonald RL. Management of aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: state of the art and future perspectives. Surg Neurol Int 2017; 8: 11-.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/2152-7806.198738] [PMID: 28217390]
[31]
Miller BA, Turan N, Chau M, Pradilla G. Inflammation, vasospasm, and brain injury after subarachnoid hemorrhage. BioMed Res Int 2014; 2014: 384342-2.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/384342] [PMID: 25105123]
[32]
Alotaibi NM, Wang JZ, Pasarikovski CR, et al. Management of raised intracranial pressure in aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage: time for a consensus. Neurosurg Focus 2017; 43(5)E13
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3171/2017.7.FOCUS17426] [PMID: 29088956]
[33]
Andreasen TH, Bartek J Jr, Andresen M, Springborg JB, Romner B. Modifiable risk factors for aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. Stroke 2013; 44(12): 3607-12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.113.001575] [PMID: 24193807]
[34]
Feigin VL, Rinkel GJ, Lawes CM, et al. Risk factors for subarachnoid hemorrhage: an updated systematic review of epidemiological studies. Stroke 2005; 36(12): 2773-80.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.STR.0000190838.02954.e8] [PMID: 16282541]
[35]
Lee AY. Vascular dementia. Chonnam Med J 2011; 47(2): 66-71.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4068/cmj.2011.47.2.66] [PMID: 22111063]
[36]
Osinbowale O, Ali L, Chi Y-W. Venous thromboembolism: a clinical review. Postgrad Med 2010; 122(2): 54-65.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3810/pgm.2010.03.2122] [PMID: 20203456]
[37]
Tritschler T, Kraaijpoel N, Le Gal G, Wells PS. Venous thromboembolism: advances in diagnosis and treatment. JAMA 2018; 320(15): 1583-94.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2018.14346] [PMID: 30326130]
[38]
Phillippe HM. Overview of venous thromboembolism. Am J Manag Care 2017; 23(20)(Suppl.): S376-82.
[PMID: 29297660]
[39]
Mahan CE, Borrego ME, Woersching AL, et al. Venous thromboembolism: annualised United States models for total, hospital-acquired and preventable costs utilising long-term attack rates. Thromb Haemost 2012; 108(2): 291-302.
[PMID: 22739656]
[40]
Min S-K, Kim YH, Joh JH, et al. diagnosis and treatment of lower extremity deep vein thrombosis: korean practice guidelines. Vasc Spec Int 2016; 32(3): 77-104.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5758/vsi.2016.32.3.77] [PMID: 27699156]
[41]
Anderson FA Jr, Spencer FA. Risk factors for venous thromboembolism. Circulation 2003; 107(23)(Suppl. 1): I9-I16.
[PMID: 12814980]
[42]
Stone J, Hangge P, Albadawi H, et al. Deep vein thrombosis: pathogenesis, diagnosis, and medical management. Cardiovasc Diagn Ther 2017; 7(Suppl. 3): S276-84.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.21037/cdt.2017.09.01] [PMID: 29399531]
[43]
Mackman N. New insights into the mechanisms of venous thrombosis. J Clin Invest 2012; 122(7): 2331-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1172/JCI60229] [PMID: 22751108]
[44]
Bruni-Fitzgerald KR. Venous thromboembolism: an overview. J Vasc Nurs 2015; 33(3): 95-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jvn.2015.02.001] [PMID: 26298612]
[45]
Wang M, Hao H, Leeper NJ, Zhu L. early career committee. thrombotic regulation from the endothelial cell perspectives. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2018; 38(6): e90-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/ATVBAHA.118.310367] [PMID: 29793992]
[46]
Corrigan D, Prucnal C, Kabrhel C. Pulmonary embolism: the diagnosis, risk-stratification, treatment and disposition of emergency department patients. Clin Exp Emerg Med 2016; 3(3): 117-25.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.15441/ceem.16.146] [PMID: 27752629]
[47]
Lavorini F, Di Bello V, De Rimini ML, et al. Diagnosis and treatment of pulmonary embolism: a multidisciplinary approach. Multidiscip Respir Med 2013; 8(1): 75-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/2049-6958-8-75] [PMID: 24354912]
[48]
Morrone D, Morrone V. Acute pulmonary embolism: focus on the clinical picture. Korean Circ J 2018; 48(5): 365-81.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4070/kcj.2017.0314] [PMID: 29737640]
[49]
Morcos R, Louka B, Tseng A, et al. the evolving treatment of peripheral arterial disease through guideline-directed recommendations. J Clin Med 2018; 7(1): 9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jcm7010009] [PMID: 29315259]
[50]
Olin JW, Sealove BA. Peripheral artery disease: current insight into the disease and its diagnosis and management. Mayo Clin Proc 2010; 85(7): 678-92.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4065/mcp.2010.0133] [PMID: 20592174]
[51]
Bailey MA, Griffin KJ, Scott DJA. Clinical assessment of patients with peripheral arterial disease. Semin Intervent Radiol 2014; 31(4): 292-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0034-1393964] [PMID: 25435653]
[52]
Criqui MH, Aboyans V. Epidemiology of peripheral artery disease. Circ Res 2015; 116(9): 1509-26.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.116.303849] [PMID: 25908725]
[53]
Kannel WB, McGee DL. Update on some epidemiologic features of intermittent claudication: the Framingham Study. J Am Geriatr Soc 1985; 33(1): 13-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.1985.tb02853.x] [PMID: 3965550]
[54]
Khandanpour N, Loke YK, Meyer FJ, Jennings B, Armon MP. Homocysteine and peripheral arterial disease: systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg 2009; 38(3): 316-22.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejvs.2009.05.007] [PMID: 19560951]
[55]
Ouriel K. Peripheral arterial disease. Lancet 2001; 358(9289): 1257-64.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(01)06351-6] [PMID: 11675083]
[56]
Ghebre YT, Yakubov E, Wong WT, et al. Vascular Aging: implications for cardiovascular disease and therapy. Transl Med (Sunnyvale) 2016; 6(4): 183.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4172/2161-1025.1000183] [PMID: 28932625]
[57]
North BJ, Sinclair DA. The intersection between aging and cardiovascular disease. Circ Res 2012; 110(8): 1097-108.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.111.246876] [PMID: 22499900]
[58]
Minamino T, Komuro I. Vascular aging: insights from studies on cellular senescence, stem cell aging, and progeroid syndromes. Nat Clin Pract Cardiovasc Med 2008; 5(10): 637-48.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ncpcardio1324] [PMID: 18762784]
[59]
Brandes RP, Fleming I, Busse R. Endothelial aging. Cardiovasc Res 2005; 66(2): 286-94.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cardiores.2004.12.027] [PMID: 15820197]
[60]
Goldspink DF, Burniston JG, Tan LB. Cardiomyocyte death and the ageing and failing heart. Exp Physiol 2003; 88(3): 447-58.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1113/eph8802549] [PMID: 12719770]
[61]
Anversa P, Kajstura J, Leri A, Bolli R. Life and death of cardiac stem cells: a paradigm shift in cardiac biology. Circulation 2006; 113(11): 1451-63.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.105.595181] [PMID: 16549650]
[62]
Hamilton PK, Lockhart CJ, Quinn CE, McVeigh GE. Arterial stiffness: clinical relevance, measurement and treatment. Clin Sci (Lond) 2007; 113(4): 157-70.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1042/CS20070080] [PMID: 17623012]
[63]
Lakatta EG, Levy D. Arterial and cardiac aging: major shareholders in cardiovascular disease enterprises: part II: the aging heart in health: links to heart disease. Circulation 2003; 107(2): 346-54.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000048893.62841.F7] [PMID: 12538439]
[64]
Maas AHEM, Appelman YEA. Gender differences in coronary heart disease. Neth Heart J 2010; 18(12): 598-602.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12471-010-0841-y] [PMID: 21301622]
[65]
Baker L, Meldrum KK, Wang M, et al. The role of estrogen in cardiovascular disease. J Surg Res 2003; 115(2): 325-44.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0022-4804(03)00215-4] [PMID: 14697301]
[66]
Kannel WB. The Framingham Study: historical insight on the impact of cardiovascular risk factors in men versus women. J Gend Specif Med 2002; 5(2): 27-37.
[PMID: 11974672]
[67]
Meyer MR, Haas E, Barton M. Gender differences of cardiovascular disease: new perspectives for estrogen receptor signaling. Hypertension 2006; 47(6): 1019-26.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.HYP.0000223064.62762.0b] [PMID: 16651458]
[68]
Groban L, Lindsey SH, Wang H, Alencar AK. Chapter 5 - Sex and Gender Differences in Cardiovascular Disease. In: Neigh GN, Mitzelfelt MM, Eds, Sex Differences in Physiology. Academic Press: Boston 2016; pp. 61-87.
[69]
Ossewaarde ME, Bots ML, Verbeek AL, et al. Age at menopause, cause-specific mortality and total life expectancy. Epidemiology 2005; 16(4): 556-62.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.ede.0000165392.35273.d4] [PMID: 15951675]
[70]
Krejza J, Arkuszewski M, Kasner SE, et al. Carotid artery diameter in men and women and the relation to body and neck size. Stroke 2006; 37(4): 1103-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.STR.0000206440.48756.f7] [PMID: 16497983]
[71]
Möller-Leimkühler AM. Gender differences in cardiovascular disease and comorbid depression. Dialogues Clin Neurosci 2007; 9(1): 71-83.
[PMID: 17506227]
[72]
Barrett-Connor E. Sex differences in coronary heart disease. Why are women so superior? the 1995 ancel keys lecture. Circulation 1997; 95(1): 252-64.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.95.1.252] [PMID: 8994444]
[73]
Spence JD, Pilote L. Importance of sex and gender in atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease. Atherosclerosis 2015; 241(1): 208-10.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2015.04.806] [PMID: 25980844]
[74]
Bolego C, Poli A, Paoletti R. Smoking and gender. Cardiovasc Res 2002; 53(3): 568-76.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0008-6363(01)00520-X] [PMID: 11861027]
[75]
Eastwood JA, Doering LV. Gender differences in coronary artery disease. J Cardiovasc Nurs 2005; 20(5): 340-51.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00005082-200509000-00008] [PMID: 16141779]
[76]
Lloyd-Jones DM, Larson MG, Beiser A, Levy D. Lifetime risk of developing coronary heart disease. Lancet 1999; 353(9147): 89-92.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(98)10279-9] [PMID: 10023892]
[77]
Roger VL, Go AS, Lloyd-Jones DM, et al. American heart association statistics committee and stroke statistics subcommittee. Heart disease and stroke statistics-2011 update: a report from the American heart association. Circulation 2011; 123(4): e18-e209.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0b013e3182009701] [PMID: 21160056]
[78]
Hajjar I, Kotchen TA. Trends in prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension in the United States, 1988-2000. JAMA 2003; 290(2): 199-206.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.290.2.199] [PMID: 12851274]
[79]
Lawes CM, Vander Hoorn S, Rodgers A. International society of hypertension. global burden of blood-pressure-related disease, 2001. Lancet 2008; 371(9623): 1513-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60655-8] [PMID: 18456100]
[80]
Haider AW, Larson MG, Franklin SS, Levy D. Framingham Heart Study. Systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, and pulse pressure as predictors of risk for congestive heart failure in the Framingham Heart Study. Ann Intern Med 2003; 138(1): 10-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-138-1-200301070-00006] [PMID: 12513039]
[81]
Collins R, Peto R, MacMahon S, et al. Blood pressure, stroke, and coronary heart disease. Part 2, Short-term reductions in blood pressure: overview of randomised drug trials in their epidemiological context. Lancet 1990; 335(8693): 827-38.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0140-6736(90)90944-Z] [PMID: 1969567]
[82]
Magyar K, Gal R, Riba A, Habon T, Halmosi R, Toth K. From hypertension to heart failure. World J Hypertens 2015; 5: 85-92.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5494/wjh.v5.i2.85]
[83]
Rafieian-Kopaei M, Setorki M, Doudi M, Baradaran A, Nasri H. Atherosclerosis: process, indicators, risk factors and new hopes. Int J Prev Med 2014; 5(8): 927-46.
[PMID: 25489440]
[84]
Li JJ, Chen JL. Inflammation may be a bridge connecting hypertension and atherosclerosis. Med Hypotheses 2005; 64(5): 925-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mehy.2004.10.016] [PMID: 15780486]
[85]
Chobanian AV, Alexander RW. Exacerbation of atherosclerosis by hypertension. Potential mechanisms and clinical implications. Arch Intern Med 1996; 156(17): 1952-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archinte.1996.00440160064009] [PMID: 8823148]
[86]
Vogt A. The genetics of familial hypercholesterolemia and emerging therapies. Appl Clin Genet 2015; 8: 27-36.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/TACG.S44315] [PMID: 25670911]
[87]
Migliara G, Baccolini V, Rosso A, et al. Familial Hypercholesterolemia: a systematic review of guidelines on genetic testing and patient management. Front Public Health 2017; 5: 252-.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2017.00252] [PMID: 28993804]
[88]
Varghese MJ. Familial hypercholesterolemia: a review. Ann Pediatr Cardiol 2014; 7(2): 107-17.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/0974-2069.132478] [PMID: 24987256]
[89]
Roy S. Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease risk and evidence-based management of cholesterol. N Am J Med Sci 2014; 6(5): 191-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/1947-2714.132916] [PMID: 24926443]
[90]
Stamler J, Daviglus ML, Garside DB, Dyer AR, Greenland P, Neaton JD. Relationship of baseline serum cholesterol levels in 3 large cohorts of younger men to long-term coronary, cardiovascular, and all-cause mortality and to longevity. JAMA 2000; 284(3): 311-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.284.3.311] [PMID: 10891962]
[91]
Mozaffarian D, Benjamin EJ, Go AS, et al. Heart disease and stroke statistics-2016 update: a report from the American heart association. Circulation 2016; 133(4): e38-e360.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000000350] [PMID: 26673558]
[92]
Daniels TF, Killinger KM, Michal JJ, Wright RW Jr, Jiang Z. Lipoproteins, cholesterol homeostasis and cardiac health. Int J Biol Sci 2009; 5(5): 474-88.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7150/ijbs.5.474] [PMID: 19584955]
[93]
Zodda D, Giammona R, Schifilliti S. Treatment strategy for dyslipidemia in cardiovascular disease prevention: focus on old and new drugs. Pharmacy (Basel) 2018; 6(1): 10.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pharmacy6010010] [PMID: 29361723]
[94]
Karr S. Epidemiology and management of hyperlipidemia. Am J Manag Care 2017; 23(9)(Suppl.): S139-48.
[PMID: 28978219]
[95]
Zárate A, Manuel-Apolinar L, Saucedo R, Hernández-Valencia M, Basurto L. Hypercholesterolemia as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease: current controversial therapeutic management. Arch Med Res 2016; 47(7): 491-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.arcmed.2016.11.009] [PMID: 28262189]
[96]
Podrez EA, Byzova TV, Febbraio M, et al. Platelet CD36 links hyperlipidemia, oxidant stress and a prothrombotic phenotype. Nat Med 2007; 13(9): 1086-95.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nm1626] [PMID: 17721545]
[97]
Otsuka F, Yasuda S, Noguchi T, Ishibashi-Ueda H. Pathology of coronary atherosclerosis and thrombosis. Cardiovasc Diagn Ther 2016; 6(4): 396-408.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.21037/cdt.2016.06.01] [PMID: 27500096]
[98]
Aguiree F, Brown A, Cho NH, et al. IDF diabetes atlas 2013.
[99]
De Rosa S, Arcidiacono B, Chiefari E, Brunetti A, Indolfi C, Foti DP. Type 2 diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular disease: genetic and epigenetic links. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2018; 9: 2-2.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2018.00002] [PMID: 29387042]
[100]
Grundy SM, Benjamin IJ, Burke GL, et al. Diabetes and cardiovascular disease: a statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association. Circulation 1999; 100(10): 1134-46.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.100.10.1134] [PMID: 10477542]
[101]
Folsom AR, Eckfeldt JH, Weitzman S, et al. Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study investigators. Relation of carotid artery wall thickness to diabetes mellitus, fasting glucose and insulin, body size, and physical activity. Stroke 1994; 25(1): 66-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.STR.25.1.66] [PMID: 8266385]
[102]
Fagot-campagna A, Rolka DB, Beckles GL, Gregg EW, Narayan K. Prevalence of lipid abnormalities, awareness, and treatment in US adults with diabetes. Diabetes 2000; 49: A78-8.
[103]
Rosenson RS. Clinical role of LDL and HDL subclasses and apolipoprotein measurement. ACC Curr J Rev 2004; 5: 33-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.accreview.2004.04.095]
[104]
Vergès B. Pathophysiology of diabetic dyslipidaemia: where are we? Diabetologia 2015; 58(5): 886-99.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00125-015-3525-8] [PMID: 25725623]
[105]
Pereira SS, Alvarez-Leite JI. Low-Grade Inflammation, obesity, and diabetes. Curr Obes Rep 2014; 3(4): 422-31.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13679-014-0124-9] [PMID: 26626919]
[106]
Low Wang CC, Hess CN, Hiatt WR, Goldfine AB. clinical update: cardiovascular disease in diabetes mellitus: atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and heart failure in type 2 diabetes mellitus - mechanisms, management, and clinical considerations. circulation 2016; 133(24): 2459-502.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.116.022194] [PMID: 27297342]
[107]
Chait A, Bornfeldt KE. Diabetes and atherosclerosis: is there a role for hyperglycemia? J Lipid Res 2009; 50(Suppl.): S335-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1194/jlr.R800059-JLR200] [PMID: 19029122]
[108]
Dokken BB. The pathophysiology of cardiovascular disease and diabetes: beyond blood pressure and lipids. Diabetes Spectr 2008; 21: 160-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/diaspect.21.3.160]
[109]
Matheus AS, Tannus LR, Cobas RA, Palma CC, Negrato CA, Gomes MB. Impact of diabetes on cardiovascular disease: an update. Int J Hypertens 2013.2013653789
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/653789] [PMID: 23533715]
[110]
Csige I, Ujvárosy D, Szabó Z, et al. The Impact of Obesity on the Cardiovascular System Journal of diabetes research 2018; 2018.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2018/3407306]
[111]
Ng M, Fleming T, Robinson M, et al. Global, regional, and national prevalence of overweight and obesity in children and adults during 1980-2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. Lancet 2014; 384(9945): 766-81.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60460-8] [PMID: 24880830]
[112]
Hales CM, Fryar CD, Carroll MD, Freedman DS, Ogden CL. trends in obesity and severe obesity prevalence in US youth and adults by sex and age, 2007-2008 to 2015-2016. JAMA 2018; 319(16): 1723-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2018.3060] [PMID: 29570750]
[113]
Mandviwala T, Khalid U, Deswal A. Obesity and cardiovascular disease: a risk factor or a risk marker? Curr Atheroscler Rep 2016; 18(5): 21.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11883-016-0575-4] [PMID: 26973130]
[114]
Janssen I, Katzmarzyk PT, Ross R. Waist circumference and not body mass index explains obesity-related health risk. Am J Clin Nutr 2004; 79(3): 379-84.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/79.3.379] [PMID: 14985210]
[115]
Poirier P, Giles TD, Bray GA, et al. Obesity and cardiovascular disease: pathophysiology, evaluation, and effect of weight loss. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2006; 26(5): 968-76.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.ATV.0000216787.85457.f3] [PMID: 16627822]
[116]
McGill HC Jr, McMahan CA, Malcom GT, Oalmann MC, Strong JP. Relation of glycohemoglobin and adiposity to atherosclerosis in youth. Pathobiological Determinants of Atherosclerosis in Youth (PDAY) Research Group. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1995; 15(4): 431-40.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.ATV.15.4.431] [PMID: 7749853]
[117]
Shukla AP, Buniak WI, Aronne LJ. Treatment of obesity in 2015. J Cardiopulm Rehabil Prev 2015; 35(2): 81-92.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/HCR.0000000000000112] [PMID: 25714749]
[118]
Maji D, Shaikh S, Solanki D, Gaurav K. Safety of statins. Indian J Endocrinol Metab 2013; 17(4): 636-46.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/2230-8210.113754] [PMID: 23961479]
[119]
Pahan K. Lipid-lowering drugs. Cell Mol Life Sci 2006; 63(10): 1165-78.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00018-005-5406-7] [PMID: 16568248]
[120]
Wierzbicki AS, Poston R, Ferro A. The lipid and non-lipid effects of statins. Pharmacol Ther 2003; 99(1): 95-112.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0163-7258(03)00055-X] [PMID: 12804701]
[121]
Barter PJ, Rye KA. New era of lipid-lowering drugs. Pharmacol Rev 2016; 68(2): 458-75.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1124/pr.115.012203] [PMID: 26983688]
[122]
Baigent C, Blackwell L, Emberson J, et al. Cholesterol Treatment Trialists’ (CTT) Collaboration. Efficacy and safety of more intensive lowering of LDL cholesterol: a meta-analysis of data from 170,000 participants in 26 randomised trials. Lancet 2010; 376(9753): 1670-81.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61350-5] [PMID: 21067804]
[123]
Stein EA, Lane M, Laskarzewski P. Comparison of statins in hypertriglyceridemia. Am J Cardiol 1998; 81(4A): 66B-9B.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0002-9149(98)00041-1] [PMID: 9526817]
[124]
Ewang-Emukowhate M, Wierzbicki AS. Lipid-lowering agents. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol Ther 2013; 18(5): 401-11.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1074248413492906] [PMID: 23811423]
[125]
Beyer TP, Chen Y, Porter RK, et al. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha agonists regulate cholesterol ester transfer protein. Lipids 2008; 43(7): 611-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11745-008-3187-0] [PMID: 18481130]
[126]
Cunningham ML, Collins BJ, Hejtmancik MR, et al. Effects of the PPARα agonist and widely used antihyperlipidemic drug gemfibrozil on hepatic toxicity and lipid metabolism. PPAR Res 2010.2010681963
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2010/681963] [PMID: 20953357]
[127]
Lalloyer F, Staels B. Fibrates, glitazones, and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2010; 30(5): 894-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/ATVBAHA.108.179689] [PMID: 20393155]
[128]
Wang D, Liu B, Tao W, Hao Z, Liu M. Fibrates for secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease and stroke. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2015; (10): CD009580
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD009580.pub2] [PMID: 26497361]
[129]
Fazio S, Linton MF. The role of fibrates in managing hyperlipidemia: mechanisms of action and clinical efficacy. Curr Atheroscler Rep 2004; 6(2): 148-57.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11883-004-0104-8] [PMID: 15023300]
[130]
Duez H, Chao YS, Hernandez M, et al. Reduction of atherosclerosis by the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha agonist fenofibrate in mice. J Biol Chem 2002; 277(50): 48051-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M206966200] [PMID: 12377786]
[131]
Israelian-Konaraki Z, Reaven PD. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha and atherosclerosis: from basic mechanisms to clinical implications. Cardiol Rev 2005; 13(5): 240-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.crd.0000137255.54390.12] [PMID: 16106185]
[132]
Saha SA, Kizhakepunnur LG, Bahekar A, Arora RR. The role of fibrates in the prevention of cardiovascular disease-a pooled meta-analysis of long-term randomized placebo-controlled clinical trials. Am Heart J 2007; 154(5): 943-53.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ahj.2007.07.011] [PMID: 17967602]
[133]
Jun M, Foote C, Lv J, et al. Effects of fibrates on cardiovascular outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet 2010; 375(9729): 1875-84.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60656-3] [PMID: 20462635]
[134]
Wierzbicki AS, Mikhailidis DP, Wray R, et al. Statin-fibrate combination: therapy for hyperlipidemia: a review. Curr Med Res Opin 2003; 19(3): 155-68.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1185/030079903125001668] [PMID: 12814127]
[135]
Ali FY, Armstrong PC, Dhanji AR, et al. Antiplatelet actions of statins and fibrates are mediated by PPARs. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2009; 29(5): 706-11.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/ATVBAHA.108.183160] [PMID: 19150877]
[136]
Unsworth AJ, Flora GD, Gibbins JM. Non-genomic effects of nuclear receptors: insights from the anucleate platelet. Cardiovasc Res 2018; 114(5): 645-55.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cvr/cvy044] [PMID: 29452349]
[137]
Out C, Groen AK, Brufau G. Bile acid sequestrants: more than simple resins. Curr Opin Lipidol 2012; 23(1): 43-55.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/MOL.0b013e32834f0ef3] [PMID: 22186660]
[138]
Staels B, Kuipers F. Bile acid sequestrants and the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Drugs 2007; 67(10): 1383-92.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00003495-200767100-00001] [PMID: 17600387]
[139]
Scaldaferri F, Pizzoferrato M, Ponziani FR, Gasbarrini G, Gasbarrini A. Use and indications of cholestyramine and bile acid sequestrants. Intern Emerg Med 2013; 8(3): 205-10.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11739-011-0653-0] [PMID: 21739227]
[140]
Insull W Jr. Clinical utility of bile acid sequestrants in the treatment of dyslipidemia: a scientific review. South Med J 2006; 99(3): 257-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.smj.0000208120.73327.db] [PMID: 16553100]
[141]
Kamal-Bahl SJ, Burke T, Watson D, Wentworth C. Discontinuation of lipid modifying drugs among commercially insured United States patients in recent clinical practice. Am J Cardiol 2007; 99(4): 530-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amjcard.2006.08.063] [PMID: 17293198]
[142]
Wierzbicki AS. Niacin: the only vitamin that reduces cardiovascular events. Int J Clin Pract 2011; 65(4): 379-85.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1742-1241.2011.02630.x] [PMID: 21401825]
[143]
Group TCDPR. Clofibrate and niacin in coronary heart disease. JAMA 1975; 231(4): 360-81.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.1975.03240160024021] [PMID: 1088963]
[144]
Vosper H. Extended release niacin-laropiprant in patients with hypercholesterolemia or mixed dyslipidemias improves clinical parameters. Clin Med Insights Cardiol 2011; 5: 85-101.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4137/CMC.S7601] [PMID: 22084607]
[145]
Tibolla G, Norata GD, Artali R, Meneghetti F, Catapano AL. Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9): from structure-function relation to therapeutic inhibition. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 2011; 21(11): 835-43.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.numecd.2011.06.002] [PMID: 21943799]
[146]
Seidah NG, Awan Z, Chrétien M, Mbikay M. PCSK9: a key modulator of cardiovascular health. Circ Res 2014; 114(6): 1022-36.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.114.301621] [PMID: 24625727]
[147]
Fala L. Repatha (Evolocumab): second PCSK9 inhibitor approved by the fda for patients with familial hypercholesterolemia. Am Health Drug Benefits 2016; 9(Spec Feature): 136-9.
[PMID: 27668060]
[148]
Larsen LE, Stoekenbroek RM, Kastelein JJP, Holleboom AG. Moving Targets: Recent advances in lipid-lowering therapies. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2019; 39(3): 349-59.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/ATVBAHA.118.312028] [PMID: 30676072]
[149]
Giugliano RP, Desai NR, Kohli P, et al. LAPLACE-TIMI 57 Investigators. Efficacy, safety, and tolerability of a monoclonal antibody to proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 in combination with a statin in patients with hypercholesterolaemia (LAPLACE-TIMI 57): a randomised, placebo-controlled, dose-ranging, phase 2 study. Lancet 2012; 380(9858): 2007-17.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61770-X] [PMID: 23141813]
[150]
Koren MJ, Scott R, Kim JB, et al. Efficacy, safety, and tolerability of a monoclonal antibody to proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 as monotherapy in patients with hypercholesterolaemia (MENDEL): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 2 study. Lancet 2012; 380(9858): 1995-2006.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61771-1] [PMID: 23141812]
[151]
Navarese EP, Kolodziejczak M, Schulze V, et al. effects of proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 antibodies in adults with hypercholesterolemia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med 2015; 163(1): 40-51.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7326/M14-2957] [PMID: 25915661]
[152]
Robinson JG, Farnier M, Krempf M, et al. ODYSSEY LONG TERM Investigators. Efficacy and safety of alirocumab in reducing lipids and cardiovascular events. N Engl J Med 2015; 372(16): 1489-99.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1501031] [PMID: 25773378]
[153]
Sabatine MS, Giugliano RP, Wiviott SD, et al. Open-Label Study of Long-Term Evaluation against LDL Cholesterol (OSLER) Investigators. Efficacy and safety of evolocumab in reducing lipids and cardiovascular events. N Engl J Med 2015; 372(16): 1500-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1500858] [PMID: 25773607]
[154]
Brar KS. Ezetimibe (Zetia). Med J Armed Forces India 2004; 60(4): 388-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0377-1237(04)80019-4] [PMID: 27407681]
[155]
Bruckert E, Giral P, Tellier P. Perspectives in cholesterol-lowering therapy: the role of ezetimibe, a new selective inhibitor of intestinal cholesterol absorption. Circulation 2003; 107(25): 3124-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.0000072345.98581.24] [PMID: 12835406]
[156]
Mauro VF, Tuckerman CE. Ezetimibe for management of hypercholesterolemia. Ann Pharmacother 2003; 37(6): 839-48.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1345/aph.1C209] [PMID: 12773075]
[157]
Morrone D, Weintraub WS, Toth PP, et al. Lipid-altering efficacy of ezetimibe plus statin and statin monotherapy and identification of factors associated with treatment response: a pooled analysis of over 21,000 subjects from 27 clinical trials. Atherosclerosis 2012; 223(2): 251-61.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2012.02.016] [PMID: 22410123]
[158]
Cannon CP, Blazing MA, Giugliano RP, et al. IMPROVE-IT Investigators. ezetimibe added to statin therapy after acute coronary syndromes. N Engl J Med 2015; 372(25): 2387-97.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1410489] [PMID: 26039521]
[159]
Wierzbicki AS. The ezetimibe Jonah: the trials and tribulations of an unlucky drug. Int J Clin Pract 2011; 65(12): 1207-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1742-1241.2011.02789.x] [PMID: 21951808]
[160]
Bays HE, Tighe AP, Sadovsky R, Davidson MH. Prescription omega-3 fatty acids and their lipid effects: physiologic mechanisms of action and clinical implications. Expert Rev Cardiovasc Ther 2008; 6(3): 391-409.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1586/14779072.6.3.391] [PMID: 18327998]
[161]
Kastelein JJP, Maki KC, Susekov A, et al. Omega-3 free fatty acids for the treatment of severe hypertriglyceridemia: the EpanoVa fOr Lowering Very high triglyceridEs (EVOLVE) trial. J Clin Lipidol 2014; 8(1): 94-106.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jacl.2013.10.003] [PMID: 24528690]
[162]
Wang C, Harris WS, Chung M, et al. n-3 Fatty acids from fish or fish-oil supplements, but not alpha-linolenic acid, benefit cardiovascular disease outcomes in primary- and secondary-prevention studies: a systematic review. Am J Clin Nutr 2006; 84(1): 5-17.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/84.1.5] [PMID: 16825676]
[163]
Dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E after myocardial infarction: results of the GISSI-Prevenzione trial. Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvivenza nell’Infarto miocardico. Lancet 1999; 354(9177): 447-55.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(99)07072-5] [PMID: 10465168]
[164]
Manson JE, Cook NR, Lee IM, et al. Marine n-3 fatty acids and prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer. N Engl J Med 2019; 380(1): 23-32.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1811403] [PMID: 30415637]
[165]
Park Y, Harris WS. Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation accelerates chylomicron triglyceride clearance. J Lipid Res 2003; 44(3): 455-63.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1194/jlr.M200282-JLR200] [PMID: 12562865]
[166]
Jain AP, Aggarwal KK, Zhang PY. Omega-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular disease. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 2015; 19(3): 441-5.
[PMID: 25720716]
[167]
Leaf A, Kang JX, Xiao YF, Billman GE. n-3 fatty acids in the prevention of cardiac arrhythmias. Lipids 1999; 34(Suppl.): S187-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02562284] [PMID: 10419144]
[168]
Jackson R, Bellamy M. Antihypertensive drugs. BJA Educ 2015; 15: 280-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/bjaceaccp/mku061]
[169]
Nguyen Q, Dominguez J, Nguyen L, Gullapalli N. Hypertension management: an update. Am Health Drug Benefits 2010; 3(1): 47-56.
[PMID: 25126308]
[170]
Ram CV. Antihypertensive drugs: an overview. Am J Cardiovasc Drugs 2002; 2(2): 77-89.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00129784-200202020-00002] [PMID: 14727984]
[171]
Effects of treatment on morbidity in hypertension. Results in patients with diastolic blood pressures averaging 115 through 129 mm Hg. JAMA 1967; 202(11): 1028-34.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.1967.03130240070013] [PMID: 4862069]
[172]
SHEP Cooperative Research Group. Prevention of stroke by antihypertensive drug treatment in older persons with isolated systolic hypertension. Final results of the Systolic Hypertension in the Elderly Program (SHEP). JAMA 1991; 265(24): 3255-64.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.1991.03460240051027] [PMID: 2046107]
[173]
ALLHAT Officers and Coordinators for the ALLHAT Collaborative Research Group. The antihypertensive and lipid-lowering treatment to prevent heart attack trial. Major outcomes in high-risk hypertensive patients randomized to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor or calcium channel blocker vs. diuretic: the Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT). JAMA 2002; 288(23): 2981-97.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.288.23.2981] [PMID: 12479763]
[174]
Sica DA, Moser M. Chapter 18 - Diuretic Therapy in Cardiovascular Disease. In: Black HR, Elliott WJ, Eds, Hypertension WB. Saunders: Philadelphia 2007; pp. 213-30.
[175]
Alon US. The effects of diuretics on mineral and bone metabolism. Pediatr Endocrinol Rev 2018; 15(4): 291-7.
[PMID: 29806749]
[176]
Roush GC, Kaur R, Ernst ME. Diuretics: a review and update. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol Ther 2014; 19(1): 5-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1074248413497257] [PMID: 24243991]
[177]
Ellison DH, Loffing J. Thiazide effects and adverse effects: insights from molecular genetics Hypertension (Dallas, Tex : 1979) 2009; 54: 196-202.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.109.129171]
[178]
Casu G, Merella P. Diuretic therapy in heart failure - current approaches. Eur Cardiol 2015; 10(1): 42-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.15420/ecr.2015.10.01.42] [PMID: 30310422]
[179]
Black HR, Elliott W. Hypertension: A companion to Braunwald’s heart disease. Elsevier Health Sciences 2006.
[180]
Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, et al. The seventh report of the joint national committee on prevention, detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood pressure: the JNC 7 report. JAMA 2003; 289(19): 2560-72.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.289.19.2560] [PMID: 12748199]
[181]
Steg PG, James SK, Atar D, et al. Task Force on the management of ST-segment elevation acute myocardial infarction of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). ESC Guidelines for the management of acute myocardial infarction in patients presenting with ST-segment elevation. Eur Heart J 2012; 33(20): 2569-619.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehs215] [PMID: 22922416]
[182]
O’Gara PT, Kushner FG, Ascheim DD, et al. American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. 2013 ACCF/AHA guideline for the management of ST-elevation myocardial infarction: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Circulation 2013; 127(4): e362-425.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0b013e3182742c84] [PMID: 23247304]
[183]
Neal B, MacMahon S, Chapman N. Blood Pressure Lowering Treatment Trialists’ Collaboration. Effects of ACE inhibitors, calcium antagonists, and other blood-pressure-lowering drugs: results of prospectively designed overviews of randomised trials. Blood Pressure Lowering Treatment Trialists’. Collaboration Lancet 2000; 356(9246): 1955-64.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(00)03307-9] [PMID: 11130523]
[184]
Ritter JM. Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers in hypertension. BMJ 2011; 342: d1673.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.d1673] [PMID: 21474511]
[185]
Wong J, Patel RA, Kowey PR. The clinical use of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 2004; 47(2): 116-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pcad.2004.04.003] [PMID: 15586352]
[186]
Pinargote P, Guillen D, Guarderas JC. ACE inhibitors: upper respiratory symptoms BMJ Case Rep 2014; 2014.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bcr-2014-205462]
[187]
Korzeniowska K, Cielewiczi A, Pawlaczyk M, Motowidlo K, Andrys-Wawrzyniak I, Jablecka A. Angioedema after angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors. Acta Pol Pharm 2017; 74(3): 983-6.
[PMID: 29513968]
[188]
Opsahl JA, Abraham PA, Keane WF. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors in chronic renal failure. Drugs 1990; 39(Suppl. 2): 23-32.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00003495-199000392-00006] [PMID: 2188823]
[189]
Atlas SA. The renin-angiotensin aldosterone system: pathophysiological role and pharmacologic inhibition. J Manag Care Pharm 2007; 13(8)(Suppl. B): 9-20.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.18553/jmcp.2007.13.s8-b.9] [PMID: 17970613]
[190]
Burnier M. Angiotensin II type 1 receptor blockers. Circulation 2001; 103(6): 904-12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.103.6.904] [PMID: 11171802]
[191]
Burnier M, Brunner HR. Angiotensin II receptor antagonists. Lancet 2000; 355(9204): 637-45.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(99)10365-9] [PMID: 10696996]
[192]
Barreras A, Gurk-Turner C. Angiotensin II receptor blockers. Proc Bayl Univ Med Cent 2003; 16(1): 123-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08998280.2003.11927893] [PMID: 16278727]
[193]
Dézsi CA. Differences in the clinical effects of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and Angiotensin receptor blockers: a critical review of the evidence. Am J Cardiovasc Drugs 2014; 14: 167-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40256-013-0058-8]
[194]
Mancia G, Fagard R, Narkiewicz K, et al. 2013 ESH/ESC Guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension: the Task Force for the management of arterial hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension (ESH) and of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). J Hypertens 2013; 31(7): 1281-357.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.hjh.0000431740.32696.cc] [PMID: 23817082]
[195]
Laurent S. Antihypertensive drugs. Pharmacol Res 2017; 124: 116-25.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.phrs.2017.07.026] [PMID: 28780421]
[196]
Elliott WJ, Ram CV. Calcium channel blockers. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) 2011; 13(9): 687-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-7176.2011.00513.x] [PMID: 21896151]
[197]
Tocci G, Battistoni A, Passerini J, et al. Calcium channel blockers and hypertension. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol Ther 2015; 20(2): 121-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1074248414555403] [PMID: 25398848]
[198]
James PA, Oparil S, Carter BL, et al. 2014 evidence-based guideline for the management of high blood pressure in adults: report from the panel members appointed to the Eighth Joint National Committee (JNC 8). JAMA 2014; 311(5): 507-20.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.284427] [PMID: 24352797]
[199]
Gradman AH, Kad R. Renin inhibition in hypertension. J Am Coll Cardiol 2008; 51(5): 519-28.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2007.10.027] [PMID: 18237679]
[200]
Uresin Y, Taylor AA, Kilo C, et al. Efficacy and safety of the direct renin inhibitor aliskiren and ramipril alone or in combination in patients with diabetes and hypertension. J Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone Syst 2007; 8(4): 190-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3317/jraas.2007.028] [PMID: 18205098]
[201]
Villamil A, Chrysant SG, Calhoun D, et al. Renin inhibition with aliskiren provides additive antihypertensive efficacy when used in combination with hydrochlorothiazide. J Hypertens 2007; 25(1): 217-26.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/HJH.0b013e3280103a6b] [PMID: 17143194]
[202]
Luther RR, Glassman HN, Boger RS. Renin inhibitors in hypertension. Clin Nephrol 1991; 36(4): 181-6.
[PMID: 1959244]
[203]
Taylor AA, Pool JL. Clinical role of direct renin inhibition in hypertension. Am J Ther 2012; 19(3): 204-10.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/MJT.0b013e3182068da5] [PMID: 21317620]
[204]
Sica DA. Alpha1-adrenergic blockers: current usage considerations. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) 2005; 7(12): 757-62.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1524-6175.2005.05300.x] [PMID: 16330901]
[205]
Cohn JN, McInnes GT, Shepherd AM. Direct-acting vasodilators. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) 2011; 13(9): 690-2.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-7176.2011.00507.x] [PMID: 21896152]
[206]
Mannhold R. KATP channel openers: structure-activity relationships and therapeutic potential. Med Res Rev 2004; 24(2): 213-66.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/med.10060] [PMID: 14705169]
[207]
Michelson AD. Antiplatelet therapies for the treatment of cardiovascular disease. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2010; 9(2): 154-69.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrd2957] [PMID: 20118963]
[208]
Gremmel T, Michelson AD, Frelinger AL III, Bhatt DL. Novel aspects of antiplatelet therapy in cardiovascular disease Research and practice in thrombosis and haemostasis 2018; 2: 439-49.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/rth2.12115]
[209]
Undas A, Brummel-Ziedins KE, Mann KG. Antithrombotic properties of aspirin and resistance to aspirin: beyond strictly antiplatelet actions. Blood 2007; 109(6): 2285-92.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1182/blood-2006-01-010645] [PMID: 17148593]
[210]
Campbell CL, Smyth S, Montalescot G, Steinhubl SR. Aspirin dose for the prevention of cardiovascular disease: a systematic review. JAMA 2007; 297(18): 2018-24.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.297.18.2018] [PMID: 17488967]
[211]
Antithrombotic Trialists’ Collaboration. Collaborative meta-analysis of randomised trials of antiplatelet therapy for prevention of death, myocardial infarction, and stroke in high risk patients. BMJ 2002; 324(7329): 71-86.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.324.7329.71] [PMID: 11786451]
[212]
Awtry EH, Loscalzo J. CHAPTER 60 - Aspirin. In: Michelson AD, Ed, Platelets (Second Edition). Academic Press: Burlington 2007; pp. 1099-125.
[213]
McFadyen JD, Schaff M, Peter K. Current and future antiplatelet therapies: emphasis on preserving haemostasis. Nat Rev Cardiol 2018; 15(3): 181-91.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrcardio.2017.206] [PMID: 29297508]
[214]
Huang ES, Strate LL, Ho WW, Lee SS, Chan AT. Long-term use of aspirin and the risk of gastrointestinal bleeding. Am J Med 2011; 124(5): 426-33.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2010.12.022] [PMID: 21531232]
[215]
Murugappa S, Kunapuli SP. The role of ADP receptors in platelet function. Front Biosci 2006; 11: 1977-86.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2741/1939] [PMID: 16368572]
[216]
Kalra K, Franzese CJ, Gesheff MG, et al. Pharmacology of antiplatelet agents. Curr Atheroscler Rep 2013; 15(12): 371.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11883-013-0371-3] [PMID: 24142550]
[217]
Angiolillo DJ. The evolution of antiplatelet therapy in the treatment of acute coronary syndromes: from aspirin to the present day. Drugs 2012; 72(16): 2087-116.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/11640880-000000000-00000] [PMID: 23083110]
[218]
Mehta SR, Yusuf S, Peters RJ, et al. Effects of pretreatment with clopidogrel and aspirin followed by long-term therapy in patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention: the PCI-CURE study. Lancet 2001; 358(9281): 527-33.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(01)05701-4] [PMID: 11520521]
[219]
Brandt JT, Payne CD, Wiviott SD, et al. A comparison of prasugrel and clopidogrel loading doses on platelet function: magnitude of platelet inhibition is related to active metabolite formation. Am Heart J 2007; 153(1): 66.e9-66.e16.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ahj.2006.10.010] [PMID: 17174640]
[220]
Montalescot G, Wiviott SD, Braunwald E, et al. Prasugrel compared with clopidogrel in patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention for ST-elevation myocardial infarction (TRITON-TIMI 38): double-blind, randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2009; 373(9665): 723-31.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60441-4] [PMID: 19249633]
[221]
Franchi F, Angiolillo DJ. Novel antiplatelet agents in acute coronary syndrome. Nat Rev Cardiol 2015; 12(1): 30-47.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrcardio.2014.156] [PMID: 25286881]
[222]
Angiolillo DJ, Bhatt DL, Gurbel PA, Jennings LK. Advances in antiplatelet therapy: agents in clinical development. Am J Cardiol 2009; 103(3)(Suppl.): 40A-51A.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amjcard.2008.11.023] [PMID: 19166712]
[223]
Mega JL, Simon T, Collet JP, et al. Reduced-function CYP2C19 genotype and risk of adverse clinical outcomes among patients treated with clopidogrel predominantly for PCI: a meta-analysis. JAMA 2010; 304(16): 1821-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.2010.1543] [PMID: 20978260]
[224]
Li Z, Delaney MK, O’Brien KA, Du X. Signaling during platelet adhesion and activation. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2010; 30(12): 2341-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/ATVBAHA.110.207522] [PMID: 21071698]
[225]
Stangl PA, Lewis S. Review of currently available GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors and their role in peripheral vascular interventions. Semin Intervent Radiol 2010; 27(4): 412-21.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-0030-1267856] [PMID: 22550383]
[226]
Morrow DA, Braunwald E, Bonaca MP, et al. Vorapaxar in the secondary prevention of atherothrombotic events. N Engl J Med 2012; 366(15): 1404-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1200933] [PMID: 22443427]
[227]
Goto S, Ogawa H, Takeuchi M, Flather MD, Bhatt DL. J-LANCELOT (Japanese-Lesson from Antagonizing the Cellular Effect of Thrombin) Investigators. Double-blind, placebo-controlled Phase II studies of the protease-activated receptor 1 antagonist E5555 (atopaxar) in Japanese patients with acute coronary syndrome or high-risk coronary artery disease. Eur Heart J 2010; 31(21): 2601-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehq320] [PMID: 20805115]
[228]
O’Donoghue ML, Bhatt DL, Wiviott SD, et al. Safety and tolerability of atopaxar in the treatment of patients with acute coronary syndromes: the lessons from antagonizing the cellular effects of Thrombin-Acute Coronary Syndromes Trial. Circulation 2011; 123(17): 1843-53.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.110.000786] [PMID: 21502577]
[229]
Wiviott SD, Flather MD, O’Donoghue ML, et al. Randomized trial of atopaxar in the treatment of patients with coronary artery disease: the lessons from antagonizing the cellular effect of Thrombin-Coronary Artery Disease Trial. Circulation 2011; 123(17): 1854-63.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.110.001404] [PMID: 21502571]
[230]
Bye AP, Unsworth AJ, Gibbins JM. Platelet signaling: a complex interplay between inhibitory and activatory networks. J Thromb Haemost 2016; 14(5): 918-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jth.13302] [PMID: 26929147]
[231]
Unsworth AJ, Flora GD, Sasikumar P, et al. RXR ligands negatively regulate thrombosis and hemostasis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2017; 37(5): 812-22.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/ATVBAHA.117.309207] [PMID: 28254816]
[232]
Moraes LA, Unsworth AJ, Vaiyapuri S, et al. Farnesoid X receptor and its ligands inhibit the function of platelets. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2016; 36(12): 2324-33.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/ATVBAHA.116.308093] [PMID: 27758768]
[233]
Schrör K. The pharmacology of cilostazol. Diabetes Obes Metab 2002; 4(Suppl. 2): S14-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1463-1326.2002.0040s2s14.x] [PMID: 12180353]
[234]
Rondina MT, Weyrich AS. Targeting phosphodiesterases in anti-platelet therapy. Handb Exp Pharmacol 2012; (210): 225-38.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-29423-5_9] [PMID: 22918733]
[235]
Pratt CM. Analysis of the cilostazol safety database. Am J Cardiol 2001; 87(12A): 28D-33D.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0002-9149(01)01719-2] [PMID: 11434897]
[236]
Venkatesh PK, Pattillo CB, Branch B, et al. Dipyridamole enhances ischaemia-induced arteriogenesis through an endocrine nitrite/nitric oxide-dependent pathway. Cardiovasc Res 2010; 85(4): 661-70.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cvr/cvq002] [PMID: 20061326]
[237]
Aktas B, Utz A, Hoenig-Liedl P, Walter U, Geiger J. Dipyridamole enhances NO/cGMP-mediated vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein phosphorylation and signaling in human platelets: in vitro and in vivo/ex vivo studies. Stroke 2003; 34(3): 764-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.STR.0000056527.34434.59] [PMID: 12624305]
[238]
Gresele P, Momi S, Falcinelli E. Anti-platelet therapy: phosphodiesterase inhibitors. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2011; 72(4): 634-46.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2125.2011.04034.x] [PMID: 21649691]
[239]
Halkes PH, van Gijn J, Kappelle LJ, Koudstaal PJ, Algra A. ESPRIT Study Group. Aspirin plus dipyridamole versus aspirin alone after cerebral ischaemia of arterial origin (ESPRIT): randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2006; 367(9523): 1665-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68734-5] [PMID: 16714187]
[240]
Verro P, Gorelick PB, Nguyen D. Aspirin plus dipyridamole versus aspirin for prevention of vascular events after stroke or TIA: a meta-analysis. Stroke 2008; 39(4): 1358-63.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.107.496281] [PMID: 18323511]
[241]
Ageno W, Gallus AS, Wittkowsky A, Crowther M, Hylek EM, Palareti G. Oral anticoagulant therapy: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis. 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines. Chest 2012; 141: e44S-88S.
[242]
Hart RG, Benavente O, McBride R, Pearce LA. Antithrombotic therapy to prevent stroke in patients with atrial fibrillation: a meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med 1999; 131(7): 492-501.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-131-7-199910050-00003] [PMID: 10507957]
[243]
Shehab N, Sperling LS, Kegler SR, Budnitz DS. National estimates of emergency department visits for hemorrhage-related adverse events from clopidogrel plus aspirin and from warfarin. Arch Intern Med 2010; 170(21): 1926-33.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archinternmed.2010.407] [PMID: 21098354]
[244]
Hepner M, Karlaftis V. Antithrombin. Methods Mol Biol 2013; 992: 355-64.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-62703-339-8_28] [PMID: 23546728]
[245]
Gresham C, Levine M, Ruha AM. Case files of the medical toxicology fellowship at banner good samaritan medical center in phoenix, AZ: a non-warfarin anticoagulant overdose. J Med Toxicol 2009; 5(4): 242-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF03178275] [PMID: 19876861]
[246]
Garcia DA, Baglin TP, Weitz JI, Samama MM. Parenteral anticoagulants: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines. In: Chest 2012; 141: pp. e24S-43S.
[247]
Douketis JD. Pharmacologic properties of the new oral anticoagulants: a clinician-oriented review with a focus on perioperative management. Curr Pharm Des 2010; 16(31): 3436-41.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/138161210793563338] [PMID: 20858185]
[248]
Harter K, Levine M, Henderson SO. Anticoagulation drug therapy: a review. West J Emerg Med 2015; 16(1): 11-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5811/westjem.2014.12.22933] [PMID: 25671002]
[249]
Linhardt RJ, Gunay NS. Production and chemical processing of low molecular weight heparins. Semin Thromb Hemost 1999; 25(Suppl. 3): 5-16.
[PMID: 10549711]
[250]
Franchini M, Liumbruno GM, Bonfanti C, Lippi G. The evolution of anticoagulant therapy. Blood Transfus 2016; 14: 175-84.
[251]
Brunton L. Blood Coagulation and Anticoagulant, Fibrinolytic, and Antiplatelet Drugs. Brunton LL, Chabner BA, Knollmann BC. Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. China. In: Ed. McGraw Hill 2012.
[252]
Crowther MA, Warkentin TE. Bleeding risk and the management of bleeding complications in patients undergoing anticoagulant therapy: focus on new anticoagulant agents. Blood 2008; 111(10): 4871-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1182/blood-2007-10-120543] [PMID: 18309033]
[253]
Lee GM, Arepally GM. Heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Hematology (Am Soc Hematol Educ Program) 2013; 2013: 668-74.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1182/asheducation-2013.1.668] [PMID: 24319250]
[254]
Turpie AG. Oral, direct factor Xa inhibitors in development for the prevention and treatment of thromboembolic diseases. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2007; 27(6): 1238-47.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/ATVBAHA.107.139402] [PMID: 17379841]
[255]
Cabral KP, Ansell JE. The role of factor Xa inhibitors in venous thromboembolism treatment. Vasc Health Risk Manag 2015; 11: 117-23.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/VHRM.S39726] [PMID: 25673997]
[256]
Weitz JI, Eikelboom JW, Samama MM. New antithrombotic drugs: antithrombotic therapy and prevention of thrombosis 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines. Chest 2012; 141: e120S-151S.
[257]
Eriksson BI, Quinlan DJ, Weitz JI. Comparative pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of oral direct thrombin and factor xa inhibitors in development. Clin Pharmacokinet 2009; 48(1): 1-22.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/0003088-200948010-00001] [PMID: 19071881]
[258]
Clayville LR, Anderson KV, Miller SA, St Onge EL. New options in anticoagulation for the prevention of venous thromboembolism and stroke. P&T 2011; 36: 86-99.
[259]
Lee CJ, Ansell JE. Direct thrombin inhibitors. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2011; 72(4): 581-92.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2125.2011.03916.x] [PMID: 21241354]
[260]
Alban S. Pharmacological strategies for inhibition of thrombin activity. Curr Pharm Des 2008; 14(12): 1152-75.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/138161208784246135] [PMID: 18473863]
[261]
Di Nisio M, Middeldorp S, Büller HR. Direct thrombin inhibitors. N Engl J Med 2005; 353(10): 1028-40.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra044440] [PMID: 16148288]
[262]
Simpson D, Siddiqui MA, Scott LJ, Hilleman DE. Reteplase: a review of its use in the management of thrombotic occlusive disorders. Am J Cardiovasc Drugs 2006; 6(4): 265-85.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00129784-200606040-00007] [PMID: 16913828]
[263]
Nordt TK, Bode C. Thrombolysis: newer thrombolytic agents and their role in clinical medicine. Heart 2003; 89(11): 1358-62.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/heart.89.11.1358] [PMID: 14594904]
[264]
Ali MR, Salim Hossain M, Islam MA, et al. Aspect of thrombolytic therapy: a review. ScientificWorldJournal 2014; 2014586510
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/586510] [PMID: 25574487]

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy